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. Author manuscript; available in PMC: 2025 Feb 1.
Published in final edited form as: Dev Psychobiol. 2024 Feb;66(2):e22455. doi: 10.1002/dev.22455

Experience of discrimination reported during pregnancy and infant’s emerging effortful control

Kenia M Rivera 1, Kimberly L D’Anna-Hernandez 2, Benjamin L Hankin 3, Elysia Poggi Davis 1,4, Jenalee R Doom 1
PMCID: PMC10928799  NIHMSID: NIHMS1955250  PMID: 38388206

Abstract

Discrimination reported during pregnancy is associated with poorer offspring emotional outcomes. Links with effortful control have yet to be examined. This study investigated whether pregnant individuals’ reports of lifetime racial/ethnic discrimination and everyday discrimination (including but not specific to race/ethnicity) reported during pregnancy were associated with offspring emerging effortful control at 6-months of age. Pregnant individuals (N=174) and their offspring (93 female infants) participated. During pregnancy, participants completed two discrimination measures: 1) lifetime experience of racial/ethnic discrimination, and 2) everyday discrimination (not specific to race/ethnicity). Parents completed the Infant Behavior Questionnaire-Revised when infants were 6 months old to assess orienting/regulation, a measure of emerging effortful control. Analyses were conducted in a subsample with racially/ethnically marginalized participants and then everyday discrimination analyses were repeated in the full sample. For racially/ethnically marginalized participants, greater everyday discrimination (β = −0.27, p = 0.01) but not greater lifetime experience of racial/ethnic discrimination (β = −0.21, p = 0.06) was associated with poorer infant emerging effortful control. In the full sample, greater everyday discrimination was associated with poorer infant emerging effortful control (β = −0.24, p = .002). Greater perceived stress, but not depressive symptoms, at 2 months postnatal mediated the association between everyday discrimination and emerging effortful control. Further research should examine additional biological and behavioral mechanisms by which discrimination reported during pregnancy may affect offspring emerging effortful control.

Keywords: Discrimination, infant, pregnancy, effortful control, Developmental Origins of Health and Disease

Disparities in child mental and physical health by race, ethnicity, and socioeconomic status, among other factors, are pervasive in the United States (Mehta et al., 2013; Poulain et al., 2020). The origins of these disparities likely begin even before birth as poorer birth outcomes (e.g., low birthweight, premature birth, birth complications) are well-documented for infants from minoritized backgrounds (e.g., Chambers et al., 2018; Nardone et al., 2020). Exposure to experiences of discrimination (mistreatment or bias towards a person based on identity or other characteristics) are one likely cause of health disparities including poorer birth outcomes among racially and ethnically marginalized individuals (Alhusen et al., 2016). Racially/ethnically marginalized individuals in particular experience greater discrimination compared to non-Latinx White individuals (Lee et al., 2019), which could contribute to the well-documented disparities in birth outcomes and offspring developmental outcomes. Due to the implications for health disparities for two generations (i.e., both pregnant individuals and their offspring), investigating whether discrimination reported during pregnancy is associated with offspring outcomes is of utmost importance for improving public health.

The Developmental Origins of Health and Disease (DOHaD) model posits that experiences in the prenatal and early postnatal periods program the development of biological systems and influence mental and physical health throughout the lifespan (Barker, 2007). Specifically, the importance of investigating stressors prior to conception has been emphasized, especially in addressing health disparities among marginalized populations (Keenan et al., 2018). A large literature now illustrates maternal life-history, including preconception and prenatal stress, has intergenerational consequences for the offspring, including poor birth outcomes, cognitive delays, stress system dysregulation, altered brain development, cardiometabolic disorders and mental illness (Bailey, 2021; Davis & Sandman, 2010, 2012; Demers et al., 2021; Essau et al., 2018; Glynn et al., 2018; Graignic-Philippe et al., 2014; Irwin et al., 2021; Lupien et al., 2009; Racine et al., 2018; Rinne et al., 2022; Sandman et al., 2015; Swales et al., 2022; Urizar & Muñoz, 2022). Experiencing discrimination can result in greater stress and depression during pregnancy (Bécares et al., 2016; Noroña-Zhou et al., 2022). However, much less is known about the implications of discrimination as a sociocultural stressor on intergenerational transmission of health disparities (Condradt, 2020).

Consistent with the DOHaD model, discrimination experienced preconception and prenatally by pregnant individuals is associated with poorer birth outcomes (Alhusen et al., 2016; Earnshaw et al., 2013; Giurgescu et al., 2011; Larrabee Sonderlund et al., 2021; Liu et al., 2023; Liu & Glynn, 2021). Emerging literature further suggests links with discrimination reported during pregnancy and offspring developmental outcomes (e.g., negative emotionality; Liu et al., 2022). For example, higher everyday discrimination reported during pregnancy predicts both higher infant behavioral inhibition/separation problems and negative emotionality at 6-months and 1 year of age (Liu et al., 2022; Rosenthal et al., 2018). While studies have linked prenatal discrimination to offspring negative emotionality, a risk factor for later psychopathology, there is a paucity of research examining other developmental outcomes that are susceptible to prenatal adversity.

Effortful control, an aspect of executive function, is a key factor associated with development of subsequent psychopathology (Nigg, 2017) that has yet to be investigated in relation to prenatal experiences of discrimination. Effortful control is characterized by regulating emotions and behaviors in order to achieve goals or task demands, which is important for managing mental health (Diamond, 2013). Early components of effortful control (i.e., emerging effortful control) can be measured in infancy preceding the emergence of effortful control around 10–12 months of age (Gartstein & Rothbart, 2003), and individual differences in effortful control have their origins in early life (Garstein et al., 2013). Evidence suggests that effortful control is shaped at least in part by prenatal experiences (Gerardin et al., 2010; Huizink et al., 2002; Lin et al., 2014; Pacheco & Figueiredo, 2012). Considering its prenatal origins and implications for psychopathology, effortful control may be particularly important to examine in relation to prenatal discrimination.

More research on the potential pathways underlying the intergenerational transmission of maternal experiences of discrimination to offspring outcome is needed. Exposure to high levels of discrimination may lead to stress and depression in adults (Torres et al., 2012; Torres & Ong, 2010) that then may affect offspring development. There is emerging evidence that maternal depressive symptoms mediate the association between prenatal everyday discrimination and infant negative emotionality (Rosenthal et al., 2018). Investigating the pathways for the association between maternal experiences of discrimination and offspring outcomes will be essential to understand potential intergenerational impacts.

Aim of Current Study

The primary aim of the current study was to examine whether discrimination reported during pregnancy was associated with offspring emerging effortful control at 6-months of age. We tested two different measures of perceived discrimination: 1) lifetime experiences of racial/ethnic discrimination, and 2) everyday discrimination (not specific to race/ethnicity). To understand mediational pathways, we additionally examined whether postpartum maternal perceived stress and depressive symptoms mediated the association between perceived discrimination reported during pregnancy and offspring emerging effortful control at 6-months of age.

METHOD

Procedure Overview

Pregnant individuals were assessed during the third trimester (M = 28.3 gestational weeks) to report on experiences of discrimination. Pregnant individual’s perceived stress and depressive symptoms were assessed postnatally around offspring age 2 months. Infant’s emerging effortful control was assessed at 6-months of age. See Figure 1 for timeline of measures.

Figure 1.

Figure 1.

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Timeline of the study.

Participants

The current sample included 174 pregnant individuals who were drawn from an ongoing longitudinal investigation examining the influence of prenatal mental health on offspring developmental outcomes and completed both prenatal measures of discrimination and postnatal assessments of emerging effortful control (Care Project; Davis et al., 2018). Participants were recruited from obstetric clinics primarily at two major medical centers in Denver, Colorado. All procedures were approved by the Institutional Review Board for the Protection of Human Subjects at the University of Denver and the University of Colorado Anschutz Medical Campus, and pregnant individuals provided written and informed consent for themselves and their infant.

Eligibility criteria for enrollment were 1) pregnant individual’s age between 18–45 years old, 2) singleton pregnancy, 3) gestational age of less than 25 weeks at time of enrollment, and 4) proficiency in English. The exclusion criteria were 1) current use of illicit drugs or methadone that was confirmed by medical records or self-report, 2) major health conditions involving invasive treatments, 3) past or current psychosis or mania based on the Structured Clinical Interview for the Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders, fifth edition (SCID), and 4) current participation in cognitive behavioral therapy or interpersonal therapy that was confirmed by medical records or self-report. Additional exclusion criteria for the current analysis included infants with a significant neurodevelopmental disorder or medical condition (n=1).

Pregnant individuals’ average age at the first assessment was 30.55 years (SD = 5.4; range = 19–42 years). Infants (53.4% female) were 39 weeks’ gestation at birth on average and were assessed at 6 months of age (M = 6.4 months, SD = 1.0). Participants identified as 50.6% non-Latinx White, 25.9% identified as Latinx, 12.1% identified as non-Latinx Black, 4.6% identified as non-Latinx Asian, 0.6% identified as non-Latinx Native Hawaiian or other Pacific Islander, and 6.3% identified as non-Latinx multiracial. See Table 1 for demographics of the participants.

Table 1.

Demographic Table

  N (%) Mean (SD) N (%) Mean (SD)
Pregnant Individual Characteristics Whole Sample (N = 174) Racially/Ethnically Marginalized Sample (N = 86)
Race/Ethnicity
Non-Latinx, White 88 (50.6) 0 (0)
Non-Latinx, African American/Black 21 (12.1) 21 (24.4)
Non-Latinx, Asian 8 (4.6) 8 (9.3)
Non-Latinx, Native Hawaiian or Other Pacific Islander 1 (.6) 1 (1.2)
Latinx, White 28 (16.1) 28 (32.6)
Latinx, African American/Black 2 (1.1) 2 (2.3)
Latinx, American Indian/Alaskan Native 11 (6.3) 11 (12.8)
Non-Latinx, More than one Race 11 (6.3) 11 (12.8)
Latinx, More than one Race 4 (2.3) 4 (4.7)
Education
No High School Diploma or GED 5 (2.9) 4 (4.7)
High School or GED 19 (10.9) 15 (17.4)
Technician/Vocation School, Associate’s Degree, Some College 62 (35.6) 44 (51.2)
Bachelor’s Degree or Higher 88 (50.6) 23 (26.7)
Married 109 (62.6) 38 (44.2)
Cohabitating 136 (78.2) 54 (62.8)
Parity (primiparous %) 73 (42.0) 35 (40.7)
Any Prenatal Substance Use 17 (9.8) 8 (9.3)
Postpartum Perceived Stress 14.4 (7.6) 14.2 (7.3)
Postpartum Depressive Symptoms 5.7 (5.1) 5.9 (5.1)
Offspring Characteristics N (%) Mean (SD) N (%) Mean (SD)
Infant’s Age (months) 6.4 (1.0) 6.6 (1.1)
Gestational Age at Birth (weeks) 38.8 (1.7) 38.7 (2.0)
Birth Weight (g) 3216.9 (474.1) 3132.9 (511.5)
Biological Sex at Birth, N female (% female) 93 (53.4) 47 (54.7)
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Notes. Infant biological sex was coded as 0 = male, 1 = female. Any Prenatal Substance Use was coded as 0 = no substance use, 1 = substance use (alcohol, cigarettes, illicit drugs, or marijuana). Based on the American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologist guidelines, the estimated date of delivery was determined by early ultrasound measures and date of the last menstrual period which were used to calculate the gestational age at birth (Committee on Obstetrics Practice, the American Institute of Ultrasound in Medicine, and the Society for Maternal-Fetal Medicine, 2017). Different sample size in the full sample: Postpartum perceived Stress (n = 159), postpartum depressive symptoms (n = 158), and birthweight (n = 173). Different sample size in the racially/ethnically marginalized sample: Postpartum perceived Stress (n = 80), postpartum depressive symptoms (n =79), and birthweight (n = 85).

Measures

Lifetime Experience of Racial/Ethnic Discrimination

Experiences of Discrimination measure (Krieger et al., 2005): Participants endorsed whether they ever experienced discrimination, were prevented from doing something, or were hassled or made to feel inferior in nine different situations (e.g., at school, at work) because of their race, ethnicity, or color, referred to as lifetime experience of racial/ethnic discrimination. For each situation, participants responded on how many times the situation has occurred. Consistent with the original scoring (Krieger et al., 2005), a frequency score was calculated by coding each response (i.e., never = 0, once = 1, 2 or 3 times = 2.5, 4 or more times = 5) and summing each response for a possible range of 0–45. A higher score indicated a higher frequency of experiences of discrimination. The Cronbach’s alpha of the measure in this sample was .91.

Everyday Discrimination (not specific to race/ethnicity)

Everyday Discrimination Scale (Williams et al., 1997): Participants reported how often in their day-to-day life one of 10 different experiences happened to them (e.g., treated with less courtesy than other people) using a 4-item Likert scale (i.e., never = 0, once = 1, 2 or 3 times = 2.5, 4 or more times = 5). Additionally, participants reported the main reason why they experienced discrimination, such as race, ethnicity, and gender. Using the parallel process as the lifetime discrimination measure above, a frequency score was calculated by summing each response that made a possible range of 0–50 with a higher score reflecting a higher frequency of everyday discrimination. The Cronbach’s alpha in this sample was .93.

Maternal Perceived Stress

The Perceived Stress Scale (PSS; Cohen et al., 1988) was measured at 2 months postnatal to assess perceived stress. The scale had 10 items that asked about how often they felt a certain way during the last month (e.g., how often have you felt nervous or “stressed”) using a 5-point Likert scale (i.e., never = 0, almost never = 1, sometimes = 2, often = 3, almost always = 4). Scores were calculated by summing all the items which made a possible range of 0–40 with a higher score indicating greater perceived stress. The Cronbach’s alpha in this sample was .91.

Maternal Depressive Symptoms

Maternal depressive symptoms were measured at 2 months postnatal using the Edinburgh Postnatal Depression Scale (EPDS; Cox et al., 1987). Participants were asked 10 items about how they felt in the past 7 days (e.g., I have felt sad or miserable) using a 4-point Likert scale (i.e., no, not at all = 0; not very often = 1; yes, sometimes = 2; yes, most of the time = 3). The score for the EPDS was calculated by summing each response that made a possible range of 0–30 with a higher score indicating greater depressive symptoms. The Cronbach’s alpha in this sample was .89.

Emerging Effortful Control

Emerging effortful control was measured at 6 months of age using the orienting/regulation scale of the Infant Behavior Questionnaire – Revised (IBQ-R; Gartstein & Rothbart, 2003). The IBQ-R is a widely used, validated measure that was developed to assess infants as young as 3 months (Gartstein & Rothbart, 2003). Orienting/regulation includes sustained attention and social aspects of regulation, such as soothability. Orienting/regulation is a precursor to effortful control, which emerges around 10–12 months of age and has been assessed in infancy as it measures these early components of executive function (Gartstein & Rothbart, 2003). The IBQ-R is a parent-report assessment of infant temperament, which includes the Orienting/Regulation scale (Gartstein & Rothbart, 2003). The questionnaire was developed to reduce the potential of reporting bias by specifically asking about behaviors in scenarios rather than just asking for judgment about child temperament. The Orienting/Regulation scale consists of 60-items with a 7-point Likert scale (1 = never to 7 = always) which are averaged for a possible range of 1–7. A higher score indicated higher emerging effortful control. In the current study, the Cronbach’s alpha for the Orienting/Regulation scale was .83.

Demographics

Participants reported on their age, race and ethnicity, household income, number of people living in the household, marital/cohabitation status, education, and substance use during pregnancy. Income-to-needs ratio was calculated by dividing the annual household income by the poverty threshold that corresponds to the number of people in the household, specified by the U.S. Census Bureau for the corresponding year. Parity was extracted from the medical record inclusive of the current pregnancy. Dichotomous variables were created for parity (0 = primiparous, 1 = multiparous).

Analytic Plan

Analyses were preregistered (https://osf.io/4f6vn). Descriptive statistics were conducted to examine the demographic and obstetric information for the sample. The independent and dependent variables were included in the analysis as continuous variables. The following variables were pre-selected as covariates given associations with birth and developmental outcomes: maternal age (Cleary-Goldman et al., 2005), parity (Shah et al., 2010), and income-to-needs ratio (Blumenshine et al., 2010). Maternal age and income-to-needs ratio were included as continuous variables while parity was dichotomous. Less than 5% of data for covariates were missing, and thus, multiple imputation was used for missing data for the covariates (i.e., parity, income-to-need ratio, maternal age).

Two separate linear regression models were conducted in the subsample of participants that identified as being a member of a racially/ethnically marginalized group (Hispanic/Latinx, Black, Asian, American Indian/Alaska Native, Native Hawaiian or Pacific Islander or multiple races/ethnicities). These regression analyses first examined whether the two measures of discrimination (i.e., lifetime experience of racial/ethnic discrimination, everyday discrimination including but not specific to race/ethnicity) were associated with infant emerging effortful control. Next, covariates were added to the models. Sensitivity analyses were conducted to test whether covarying substance use during pregnancy impacted findings (see Supplement Table 2).

After analyses with the subsample of participants from racially/ethnically marginalized backgrounds, one linear regression model was conducted with the full sample (all participants regardless of race/ethnicity). This model tested whether the everyday discrimination measure (which included multiple reasons for discrimination including but not limited to race/ethnicity, gender and age) predicted infant emerging effortful control in the full sample. Next, covariates were added to the model. Sensitivity analyses were conducted to test whether covarying substance use during pregnancy impacted findings (see Supplement Table 2).

Additionally, if everyday discrimination predicted infant emerging effortful control in the full sample, a final linear regression model was conducted in the subsample of non-Latinx White participants only to understand whether everyday discrimination (not specific to race/ethnicity) also predicted infant effortful control in the subsample with and without covariates (see Supplement Table 3).

If a measure of discrimination was associated with emerging effortful control in regression analyses, mediation analyses were conducted using the SPSS PROCESS Macro to test whether the pregnant individual’s perceived stress and depressive symptoms at 2 months postnatal mediated the association between the pregnant individual’s discrimination reported during pregnancy and infant emerging effortful control at 6-months. Mediation models were conducted separately for perceived stress and depressive symptoms. The mediation models were conducted in the full sample to preserve power.

An exploratory analysis was conducted to test whether biological sex at birth moderates the association between discrimination and infant emerging effortful in the full sample.

RESULTS

Descriptive Statistics

Bivariate correlations and descriptives were reported in Table 2. There were no differences in infant’s emerging effortful control by parity (t = −1.47, p = 0.15), infant sex (t = 1.36, p = 0.18), income-to-needs ratio (r = −0.03, p = .70), pregnant individual’s age (r = 0.03, p = .71), or infant’s age at the 6-month assessment (r = −0.37, p = .63). Racially/ethnically marginalized participants reported higher everyday discrimination including but not specific to race/ethnicity (M = 10.31, SD = 8.74) than non-Latinx White participants (M = 6.10, SD = 6.55). Supplement Table 1 reports the main reason (e.g., race, ethnicity, gender, age) why participants report they experienced discrimination on the Everyday Discrimination Scale.

Table 2.

Bivariate Correlation among Study Variables

  Mean (SD) 1 2 3 4
1. Emerging Effortful Control 5.3 (.6)
2. Lifetime Experience of Racial/Ethnic Discrimination 9.8 (10.6) −0.20
3. Everyday Discrimination 10.3 (8.7) −0.25* 0.76**
4. Pregnant Individual’s Age 28.9 (5.8) 0.01 0.07 0.12
5. Income-to-needs Ratio 2.6 0.02 −0.20 −0.08 0.23*
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Notes: Data included only racially/ethnically marginalized participants (N=86).

*

p < .05

**

p < .01

Discrimination and Emerging Effortful Control: Racially/Ethnically Marginalized Participants

In the subset of racially/ethnically marginalized participants, greater everyday discrimination (β = −0.25, p = 0.02) predicted poorer infant emerging effortful control. Although lifetime experience of racial/ethnic discrimination was associated with infant emerging effortful control in the same direction, it did not reach the standard cut off for statistical significance (β = −0.20, p = 0.07). Inclusion of covariates did not alter the pattern or significance of associations (everyday: β = −0.27, p = 0.01; lifetime: β = −0.21, p = 0.06) (Table 3 and Supplement Table 2).

Table 3.

Pregnant Individual Report of Discrimination Predicts Infant Emerging Effortful Control

Racially/Ethnically Marginalized Participants (N=86) Model 1a (without covariates) Model 1b (with covariates)
B SE β B SE β
Lifetime Experience of Racial/Ethnic Discrimination −0.011 0.006 −0.197 −0.011 0.006 −0.213
Pregnant Individual’s Age 0.000 0.012 −0.003
Parity1 0.120 0.140 0.104
Income-to-needs Ratio 0.002 0.031 0.010
Racially/Ethnically Marginalized Participants (N=86) Model 2a Model 2b
B SE β B SE β
Everyday Discrimination −0.016 0.007 −0.254* −0.017 0.007 −0.266*
Pregnant Individual’s Age 0.001 0.012 0.009
Parity1 0.118 0.138 0.103
Income-to-needs Ratio 0.006 0.030 0.027
Whole sample (N=174) Model 3a Model 3b
B SE β B SE β
Everyday Discrimination −0.015 0.005 −0.213** −0.017 0.006 −0.235**
Pregnant Individual’s Age 0.003 0.009 0.032
Parity1 0.115 0.094 0.098
Income-to-needs Ratio −0.013 0.014 −0.079
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Notes:

*

p < .05

**

p < .01

1

0=primiparous, 1=multiparous

Discrimination and Emerging Effortful Control: Full Sample

Greater everyday discrimination predicted poorer infant emerging effortful control (β = −0.21, p = 0.005). The association remained after inclusion of covariates (β = −0.24, p = .002) (Table 3 and supplement Table 2).

Mediation Analysis of Perceived Stress and Depression: Full sample

In the full sample, higher everyday discrimination in pregnancy was indirectly associated with lower infant emerging effortful control at 6-months via higher postpartum perceived stress at 2-months (indirect effect = −.006, 95% CI = −.011 to −.002; Figure 2a). However, early postpartum maternal depressive symptoms at 2 months did not mediate the association between everyday discrimination in pregnancy and infant emerging effortful control at 6-months (indirect effect = −.002, 95% CI = −.006 to .001; Figure 2b).

Figure 2.

Figure 2.

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Mediation of postpartum maternal perceived stress (panel A) and depressive symptoms (panel B) for the association between experiences of discrimination reported in pregnancy and infant emerging effortful control. In panel A, higher everyday discrimination in pregnancy was indirectly association with lower infant emerging effortful control at 6-months via higher postpartum perceived stress at 2-months. In panel B, early postpartum maternal depressive did not mediate the association between everyday discrimination and infant emerging effortful control at 6-months. Note: * p < .05, **p < .01, ***p < .001. c’ is the direct effect of discrimination on emerging effortful control, and c is the total effect of discrimination on emerging effortful control.

Exploratory Analysis: Infant Biological Sex as a Moderator

Sex moderated the association between everyday discrimination and infant emerging effortful control in the full sample (β = 0.21, p = 0.03). Simple slopes analyses revealed that everyday discrimination predicted poorer infant emerging effortful control among the male (slope = −.03, t = −3.72, p < .001) but not the female infants (slope = .00, t = −0.24, p = .81).

Discussion

This study adds important insights about the potential intergenerational impact of discrimination. Our prospective findings revealed that experiences of discrimination reported in pregnancy predicted emerging effortful control in both the subsample of racially/ethnically marginalized participants and in the full sample. Exposure of racially/ethnically marginalized people to discrimination may contribute to racial/ethnic disparities in risk for psychopathology for their offspring as early as infancy. Aligning with the DOHaD model, these findings support the previous work that experiences of discrimination could have intergenerational consequences for offspring development.

Our study highlights the importance of considering multiple aspects of exposure to discrimination. Our findings were consistent with Liu and colleagues (2022), as we found that prenatal exposure to everyday discrimination predicted infant outcomes. Previous research with nonpregnant adults found that everyday discrimination may be more harmful than major lifetime discrimination (Ayalon et al., 2011). These chronic day-to-day experiences of discrimination might have an impact on the pregnant individual’s mental health, behavior, and biological processes, which could be transmitted to their offspring both prenatally and postnatally. Furthermore, the Everyday Discrimination Scale measured multiple aspects of discrimination that included, but were not limited to race and ethnicity, such as gender and age. However, the scale only asks participants to report the main reason for discrimination, which doesn’t provide the full complexity experience that marginalized populations encounter as people can experience multiple forms of discrimination simultaneously. Future research should collect data in multiple experiences of discrimination in relation to infant outcomes.

Consistent with the possibility that maternal experiences of discrimination impact offspring by increasing maternal stress, we found that postpartum maternal perceived stress mediated the association between everyday discrimination and emerging effortful control. In contrast, maternal postpartum depressive symptoms were not a mediator, which differs from a previous study that found prenatal depressive symptoms mediated the association between everyday discrimination and infant negative emotionality (Rosenthal et al., 2018). Differences in timing and in the infant outcome may account for this different pattern of findings. Additionally, our sample was different from Rosenthal and colleagues’ (2018) sample which had more Latina participants. Marginalized groups experience multiple forms of oppression, and there are varying histories of racism and discrimination in the United States by different groups. These differences could have a unique impact on infant outcomes (Miller & Garran, 2017; Sue & Spanierman, 2020). Further research is needed to investigate the potential mechanisms that might explain the pathways of intergenerational transmission of experiences of discrimination to offspring development. It would also be essential to investigate potential protective factors that might reduce the intergenerational transmission of discrimination to offspring outcomes.

There was some evidence that associations between everyday discrimination and emerging effortful control at 6 months of age were stronger for male than female infants. This finding stands in contrast to the stronger association among females for negative emotionality (Liu et al., 2022) which might be related to variations in the outcome under investigation. These findings should be interpreted cautiously and should be replicated in a larger sample. Future research should evaluate sex differences in responses to prenatal exposure to discrimination as the fetus often responds to the prenatal environment in a sex-specific manner (Davis & Pfaff, 2014; Dipietro & Voegtline, 2017; Sandman et al., 2012).

Strengths and Limitations

A strength of the current study was the prospective and longitudinal design that allowed the examination of experiences of discrimination reported during pregnancy on subsequent maternal psychosocial functioning at 2 months and infant outcomes at 6 months postnatal. Additionally, inclusion of multiple discrimination measures was a strength enabling evaluation of different types and temporal characteristics (every day versus major infrequent events). The limitations of the study must also be considered. Parent report was used to assess infant temperament and thus is subject to parental bias. The IBQ-R was created to reduce parent bias by asking about concrete behaviors rather than parent perceptions of their child’s effortful control. However, future research could include both parent-report and behavioral measures of infant emerging effortful control. Potential behavior measures could include the Lab-TAB (Goldsmith & Rothbart, 1994) and the A-not-B task (Diamond et al., 1997) that examine early attentional control and inhibition, which have been linked to future effortful control (Aksan & Kochanska, 2004). Additionally, due to sample size limitations, it was not possible to examine experiences of discrimination within individuals of different races and ethnicities. Although individuals with marginalized identities share increased experiences of discrimination, there are important within and between group experiences that should be assessed in future work. For example, different marginalized groups experience different amounts of discrimination and different forms of oppression that might have a unique impact on offspring outcomes. Additionally, this sample is drawn from the Denver metropolitan area in Colorado, and findings may not be representative of other demographic populations.

Conclusions

The current finding provides support that experiences of discrimination reported during pregnancy may have intergenerational consequences for offspring emerging effortful control. Future research is needed to investigate the potential mechanisms by which experiences of discrimination reported during pregnancy may lead to poorer offspring outcomes. Furthermore, it is essential to investigate potential protective factors that might reduce the intergenerational transmission of discrimination experiences to offspring (Davis & Narayan, 2020). There is evidence that parenting self-efficacy, for example, reduces the association between acculturative stress and negative emotionality but does not reduce the association between discrimination and negative emotionality (Liu et al., 2022). Thus, future research should identify factors that might protect offspring from the intergenerational transmission of discrimination. There is also a need for policy to prevent and mitigate the effects of discrimination, which could have positive impacts on at least two generations. Efforts to support pregnant individuals and prevent discrimination are needed to promote the health of the parent and the healthy development of their offspring, and future research should document how these interventions affect both the parent and their offspring.

Supplementary Material

Supinfo

Author’s Acknowledgement:

The authors wish to thank the participants in the study for their important contribution in sharing their experiences. We also thank the dedicated Care Project team for all of their efforts to complete this project. The authors of this publication were supported by the National Heart, Lung, And Blood Institute: R01HL155744 (EPD, BLH, JRD), K01HL143159 (JRD) and the National Institute of Mental Health: R01MH109662 (EPD, BLH), R01MH109662–04S1 (KMR).

Funding:

This work was supported by the National Institute of Mental Health (R01 MH109662).

Footnotes

Declarations

Availability of data and material: Data are available upon reasonable request

Code availability: Code is available on OSF

Conflict of interest/Competing interest: The authors declare that they have no conflict of interest.

Ethical approval: This study was approved by the Institutional Review Board for the Protection of Human Subjects at the University of Denver and the University of Colorado Anschutz Medical Campus.

Consent to participate: All participants in the study provided written and informed consent for themselves and their infant.

Consent for publication: All authors consent on the present form of the manuscript and agree to its submission to Developmental Psychobiology.

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