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Journal of Central South University Medical Sciences logoLink to Journal of Central South University Medical Sciences
. 2023 Sep 28;48(9):1368–1376. [Article in Chinese] doi: 10.11817/j.issn.1672-7347.2023.230083

铜死亡在肝癌中的研究进展

Research progress in cuproptosis in liver cancer

CHEN Leijie 1,2, LIU Deliang 1, TAN Yuyong 1,
Editor: 郭 征
PMCID: PMC10929866  PMID: 38044648

Abstract

Copper, like iron, is an essential trace metal element for human cells. The role of iron overload and ferroptosis has been gradually clarified in tumors, but the role of copper overload and cuproptosis is still being explored. Cuproptosis is a novel mode of cell death, secondary to impaired mitochondrial function induced by copper overload, and characterized by copper-dependent and programmed. The excessive copper leads to protein toxicity stress by binding to sulfhydryl proteins in the tricarboxylic acid (TCA) cycle of mitochondria, disrupting cellular homeostasis and triggering cuproptosis. Copper accumulation has carcinogenic effects on normal cells, dual effects on tumor cells. Liver cancer is one of the most common malignant tumors in China and even globally, with hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) being the most common histological subtype. Copper exhibits dualism in HCC, as it both contributes to the growth and invasion of HCC cells, and exerts anticancer effects by inducing cuproptosis. Also, cuproptosis-related genes can be the evaluation of immunotherapy effect and the construction of prognostic models. Clarifying the role of copper death in liver cancer can help explore new methods for liver cancer screening, treatment, and prognosis evaluation.

Keywords: cuproptosis, liver cancer, immunotherapy, copper transporter receptor


铜是人体必需的痕量金属元素,是多种酶的辅因子结构成分,参与血管生成、神经发育、细胞呼吸等多种重要生物学过程。然而,过量的铜会催化有毒活性氧物质的生成并损害细胞。因此,细胞中的铜含量受到严格的调控,并由铜相关运输蛋白表达调控实现。人体内铜的总体水平与铜的摄取、储存、分解利用有关,当三者处于动态平衡时,即为铜稳态。某些因素如酒精,既是肝癌的危险因素,亦可升高暴露者血清铜水平[1]。由于肝癌预后差,且缺乏有效的治疗手段[2],越来越多的研究立足于寻找新的肝癌治疗靶点。铜或能降低肝癌风险,含铜纳米药物二硫化铜纳米颗粒可切割乙型肝炎病毒核心抗原,阻断乙型肝炎病毒组装,可有效对抗乙型肝炎病毒对肝细胞的损害[3];在膳食中补充适量的铜能对抗酒精对肠黏膜屏障的破坏作用[4]。癌细胞对铜的需求量增加,肝癌患者血清铜水平升高,癌组织中存在铜过载。应用铜载体向肿瘤细胞靶向运输铜,可诱发肿瘤细胞铜死亡。利用肝癌中铜稳态的失调,有助于寻找新的治疗靶点,提升现有治疗手段的疗效,改善肝癌患者的预后。

1. 肝癌概述

肝癌是世界第5大、中国第2大恶性肿瘤;2020年全球肝癌年龄标化发病率为9.5/10万,中国肝癌新发病例41万例[5-6]。肝癌可分为原发性和继发性,以原发性较为多见;原发性肝癌中以肝细胞癌(hepatocellular carcinoma,HCC)占比最高,达85%~90%[7]。原发性肝癌患者病程一般较长,起病隐匿,其危险因素包括不良的生活方式(酒精、肥胖等)、生物因素(肝炎病毒、黄曲霉素等)和理化因素(苯、重金属等)[8-9]。在欧美地区,酒精相关性肝癌发病率占比最大;在中国,乙肝相关性肝癌发病率最高,酒精相关性肝癌发病率位居第二;随着酒精消耗量的增加,酒精相关性肝癌所带来的疾病负担也愈发明显[10]。肝癌的发病机制错综复杂,即使是同一类型的肝癌,在疾病进展过程中亦因受到多种因素的影响,而造成不同的结局。肝癌中存在多种程序性和非程序性细胞死亡方式,包含坏死、凋亡、焦亡、铁死亡、铜死亡等,这从侧面印证了多种生物学行为参与肝癌的进程[11]。肝癌现有治疗手段相对有限,包括手术切除、放射性栓塞术、靶向治疗、免疫治疗和肝移植等。肝癌手术治疗的易复发性、药物治疗的易耐药性、肝移植的昂贵性和供体的缺乏性,共同决定了寻求新的、有效的肝癌治疗手段的必要性。早期肝癌患者的临床症状不明显,因此,寻找有效的筛查指标有助于改善肝癌患者的整体生存率。肝癌整体预后差,2020年全球癌症统计数据表明肝癌位居全球癌症相关死亡的第3位,该特点与疾病后期因肝功能受损所致的多种并发症与高病死率有关[6],且有肝硬化的肝癌患者的远期生存率低于无肝硬化的肝癌患者[12]

2. 铜稳态及铜死亡

2.1. 铜稳态

铜是多种细胞生命过程的参与者和调控者,人体内的铜在肌肉、大脑和肝脏中富集。铜的氧化还原性质通过Cu+和Cu2+ 2种价态实现,其同时扮演着氧自由基的产生者(Fenton反应[13])和清除者[活化超氧化物歧化酶1(superoxide dismutase 1,SOD1)[14]]2种角色。除氧化还原作用外,铜还具有维持造血和免疫功能、促进黑色素与结缔组织形成、保护中枢神经系统等作用[15-18]。因此,适量的铜是生命活动所必需的。铜稳态是铜的摄入和消除处于动态平衡,并维持细胞所需的浓度[19]。具体而言,血清铜浓度调节消化道对铜的吸收与排泄;肝脏通过合成铜血浆转运蛋白(铜蓝蛋白和白蛋白),成为机体调节铜稳态的枢纽器官和铜的贮存仓库;胞质内铜的含量由铜转运蛋白受体(copper transporter receptor,CTR)家族和与铜转运蛋白表达相关的细胞信号通路等多种因素的调控。CTR广泛分布于人体各组织细胞中,在肝、肾、肠道中分布最多,因此铜代谢失调时肝易成为受损靶器官。铜转运蛋白的水平受体内铜含量的调控,及多种病理、生理因素的影响。正常情况下,细胞通过金属硫蛋白(metallothioneins,MTs)和低分子量配体如谷胱甘肽(glutathione,GSH)的铜结合作用维持胞内低含量游离铜。肝脏中的MTs主要为MT-1和MT-2型,铜含量增加以及应激源(如氧化应激和炎症因子)可诱导MTs的合成,以对抗铜过载的细胞毒性。但在肿瘤细胞中,MTs表达下调。铜在细胞内由铜伴侣蛋白进行运输,铜伴侣蛋白主要包括抗氧化蛋白1(antioxidant proteins 1,ATOX1)、SOD1及其铜分子伴侣(copper chaperone for superoxide dismutase,CCS)。细胞膜上的铜转运型ATP酶ATP7A和ATP7B负责铜的释放,ATP7B突变与肝豆状核变性有关[20]。溶质载体31家族成员1(solute carrier family 31 member 1,SLC31A1,也称CTR1;CTR1/SLC31A1)的铜结合能力最强,负责铜的摄入,其表达增加时,细胞出现铜过载[21](图1)。溶质载体25家族成员3(solute carrier family 25 member 3,SLC25A3)是线粒体磷酸盐转运蛋白,能转运铜,表达上调时引起线粒体基质的铜过载[22]。铜稳态失调参与心血管疾病[23]、视网膜疾病[24]和肿瘤[25]等多种疾病的进程。

图1.

图1

细胞中的铜稳态

Figure 1 Copper homeostasis in cells

High-affinity transmembrane transporter CTR1/SLC31A1 transports Cu+ into cells, then Cu+ distributes to different targets through metal coordinating chaperones (ATOX1, CCS) or alternative ligands (GSH). Cu+ enters the trans-Golgi network through the interaction between ATOX1 and ATP7A. The copper transport protein SLC25A3 transports Cu+ to the mitochondrial matrix for storage. The chaperone protein CCS delivers Cu+ to SOD1, which is necessary for metalation and formation of disulfide bonds at the site. When copper (Cu+) overload occurs, MTs bind excess copper and cooperate with ATP7A, which is relocalized to the cell membrane, for Cu+ efflux. In certain cells, such as hepatocytes, ATP7B replaces the predominant localization of ATP7A. CTR1/SLC31A1: Copper transport protein receptor 1/solute carrier family 31 member 1; ATOX1: Antioxidant proteins 1; CCS: Copper chaperone for superoxide dismutase; GSH: Glutathione; ATP7A, ATP7B: Copper-transporting ATPase; SLC25A3: Solute carrier family 25 member 3; SOD1: Superoxide dismutase 1; MTs: Metallothioneins.

2.2. 铜死亡及其发生机制

铜死亡是一种非凋亡、程序性细胞死亡方式。与铁死亡不同的是,铜死亡一般由铜稳态破坏后的铜过载产生,活性氧并非该过程所必需。铜载体药物如伊利司莫、双硫仑,病理因素如病毒感染,遗传因素如基因缺陷等均能引起Cu+在胞质内堆积[26]。另外,线粒体状态能反映细胞铜缓冲能力,因此线粒体受损可作为评估铜死亡的重要指标[27]。线粒体受损是铜死亡发生的关键环节。在铜过载状态下,过剩的铜与三羧酸(tricarboxylic acid,TCA)循环中的硫辛酰化蛋白结合并促使后者的异常寡聚化,伴随Fe-S簇蛋白水平降低,二者共同诱发蛋白质毒性应激反应和铜死亡[28]。蛋白质脂酰化上游调节因子铁氧还蛋白(ferredoxin 1,FDX1)将Cu2+还原为Cu+,与硫辛酸途径效应物共同促进含有丙酮酸脱氢酶复合体的酶在TCA循环中的脂酰化,敲除FDX1基因后,硫辛酰化蛋白和铜的结合靶点减少,从而减轻细胞铜毒性[29]。某些药物可以调控铜死亡过程:丁硫氨酸-亚砜亚胺竞争性结合并耗竭细胞内源性铜螯合剂GSH诱导铜死亡,强效铜载体伊利司莫在胞内与铜形成复合体诱导铜过载和铜死亡;线粒体丙酮酸载体抑制剂K5099和电子传递链复合物I/III抑制剂(如鱼藤酮和抗霉素A)可减弱伊利司莫诱导的铜死亡[29]。铜死亡致细胞死亡的机制涉及诱导细胞凋亡、诱导caspase非依赖性细胞死亡、诱导活性氧生成、抑制泛素-蛋白酶体系统等[30]

3. 铜死亡与肝癌

3.1. 铜死亡与肝癌的发生和发展

肝癌组织中存在铜稳态受损。在肝癌患者的组织标本中,铜和铜蛋白复合物累积,细胞中铜结合蛋白(copper-binding protein,CBP)合成增加[31-32]。此外,肝癌组织中ATP7A、ATP7B、SLC31A1和SLC31A2等铜转运蛋白表达水平下降[33]。铜对于肿瘤细胞而言是双刃剑:铜的促癌机制主要为铜依赖性细胞增殖和铜的促血管生成作用,铜的抑癌作用主要通过铜死亡实现。Cu+通过激活丝裂原活化蛋白激酶(mitogen activated protein kinase,MAPK)-细胞外调节蛋白激酶(extracellular regulated protein kinases,ERK)通路,促进肿瘤细胞增殖[34]及血管生成素(angiopoietin,Ang)、血管内皮生长因子(vascular endothelial growth factor,VEGF)、成纤维细胞生长因子1(fibroblast growth factor 1,FGF1)等多种血管生长因子的合成,并通过稳定缺氧诱导因子-1(hypoxia inducible factor-1,HIF-1),进一步增加促血管生成因子的表达[35-36]。铜可通过ATOX-ATP7A-赖氨酰氧化酶(lysyl oxidase,LOX)通路促进肿瘤转移[37-38];通过上调肿瘤细胞程序性死亡蛋白-1配体(programmed death 1 ligand,PD-L1)表达,帮助其逃避免疫系统的清除[39]。在肝癌中,GSH等螯合多余铜和储藏铜的分子表达减少,导致肿瘤细胞对铜螯合反应敏感[40],胞质铜过载加重,抵抗铜过载相关氧化应激损伤的能力减弱[41]。GSH的减少与肝癌中MTs表达下调有关[42]。MTs是富含半胱氨酸的小蛋白质,在维持金属稳态和防止重金属毒性、DNA损伤、氧化应激中起重要作用。MTs的含量变化与肝癌等多种癌症的发生、发展及预后有关。铜过载/铜死亡通过干扰线粒体TCA循环引发肿瘤细胞死亡[29]。肿瘤细胞对铜的依赖性导致细胞内铜过载,铜过载伴发GSH减少,最终使抗氧化能力降低,这是应用铜螯合剂抗肿瘤的理论依据(图2)。

图2.

图2

铜和铜死亡参与肝癌的机制

Figure 2 Mechanisms of copper and cuproptosis in liver cancer

The carcinogenic effect of copper is related to the promotion of tumor proliferation, metastasis, and angiogenesis. Copper’s molecular partner ATOX1 is a regulator of angiogenesis and LOX enzyme. Copper activates the NF-κB pathway to promote the expression of VEGF. Copper also activates downstream ERK1/2 phosphorylation through high-affinity binding to MAPK, promoting tumor growth. In addition, copper can upregulate the expression of tumor cell PD-L1 through the STAT/EGFR pathway, helping them evade immune killing. The downregulation of copper homeostasis-related molecules MTs is associated with impaired GSH antioxidant system. Copper’s carcinogenic effect leads to the relative accumulation of Cu+ in cells, which combined with weakened antioxidant stress response, may contribute to copper-induced cell death. The copper carrier elesclomol can target transport Cu2+ into tumor cells, leading to abnormal aggregation of lipoylated protein and the loss of Fe-S cluster proteins in the respiratory chain complex, disrupting the TCA cycle in mitochondria, and causing cell death via cuproptosis. CTR1/SLC31A1: Solute carrier family 31 member 1/copper transport protein receptor 1; FDX1: Ferredoxin 1; ATP7A, ATP7B: Copper-transporting ATPase; Fe-S: Iron-sulfur protein; ATOX1: Antioxidant proteins 1; LOX: Lysyl oxidase; NF-κB: Nuclear factor-kappa B; VEGF: Vascular endothelial growth factor; ERK: Extracellular signal-regulated kinase; MAPK: Mitogen activated protein kinase; PD-L1: Programmed death 1 ligand; STAT/EGFR: Signal transducer and activator of transcription/Epidermal growth factor receptor; MTs: Metallothioneins; GSH: Glutathione; TCA: Tricarboxylic acid; DLAT: Dihydrolipoamide acetyltransferase; LIAS: Lipoic acid synthase.

3.2. 铜死亡与肝癌的治疗和预后

靶向金属离子载体可以定位肿瘤细胞,并使目标金属离子在肿瘤细胞中富集,引发氧化应激损伤和细胞毒性反应,从而杀伤肿瘤细胞。铜死亡诱导剂或调节剂或能在其他治疗效果不佳时成为替代策略。研究[43-44]显示铜载体类药物伊利司莫对肿瘤细胞有杀伤作用,该作用可能与降解铜输出蛋白ATP7A有关。高浓度的过氧化氢可帮助铜载体选择性靶向癌细胞,诱发癌细胞铜死亡[45]。此外,脂酰化蛋白丰度高的细胞系对铜死亡敏感,而FDX1的表达水平可反映脂酰化蛋白丰度[29],这为铜载体类药物需要锚定的肿瘤细胞提供了代谢特征。铜死亡亦能与肝癌的其他治疗手段相结合,提高其他治疗方法的疗效。研究[46]发现:有机铜络合物CuET通过诱导肿瘤细胞死亡改善铂类化学治疗药物的耐药性,这种由CuET诱导的,与顺铂的凋亡模式不同的细胞死亡模式,即铜死亡模式。某些铜转运蛋白如CTR1[47]、有机阳离子转运蛋白(organic cation transporter,OCT)3[48]与铂类化学治疗药物的耐药性相关,这些蛋白能够调控铂类化学治疗药物在肿瘤细胞中的蓄积。上调这些蛋白的表达,能协同铜死亡与铂类化学治疗药物的抗肿瘤效应,从而为肝癌的治疗提供了新靶点。铜载体药物双硫仑对肝癌靶向治疗药物索拉非尼具有增敏作用,这种作用与双硫仑螯合Cu+引发的细胞毒性反应(铜死亡)和ERK通路的持续激活有关[49]。相较于化学治疗等传统治疗手段,免疫治疗的效果较好,不良反应小,是非手术肝癌患者更好的选择,但亟需克服无应答和肿瘤免疫逃逸问题[50]。免疫疗法的疗效与患者免疫系统的功能状态和肿瘤微环境中免疫细胞的活性密切相关,提高免疫应答是免疫疗法的关键。免疫原性细胞死亡(immunogenic cell death,ICD)是免疫治疗过程中的关键步骤,除化学治疗药物外,金属离子也可诱发肿瘤ICD。在肝癌中,铜联合双硫仑不但具有抗肿瘤、增强免疫治疗效果、抑制免疫检查点的作用,还能上调PD-L1表达,增强PD-L1抑制剂的疗效[51-52]。铜具有一定的免疫调节作用,其对天然免疫系统和T细胞的活化均有刺激作用[16]。铜及铜死亡可影响肿瘤微环境与肿瘤代谢,并减少微环境中免疫细胞的浸润,降低免疫治疗的效果[53]

铜及铜死亡与肝癌预后密切相关。一项来自广东的肝癌队列研究[54]表明:血清铜浓度越高,患者预后越差;这或许与铜蓄积带来的致癌作用和肿瘤细胞对铜的依赖性有关。肝癌患者血液中铜蓝蛋白的水平高于肝硬化患者[55]。值得一提的是,这些生物标志物在早期患者中即可表现出显著差异。肝癌组织中铜输出蛋白ATP7A mRNA表达上调,铜转运蛋白SLC31A1/2 mRNA表达下调,肝癌细胞的生长依赖于CTR1[33]。上述研究结果表明铜相关因子可能作为预测肝癌患者总体预后的标志物。由于免疫治疗在不同患者中的疗效差异较大,因此需要有效的模型来预测和评价免疫治疗的效果,筛选适合免疫治疗的患者。有研究将铜死亡相关基因应用于肝癌免疫治疗效果和预后的评估中。Zhang等[56]发现铜死亡相关差异表达-非编码长链RNA(differentially expressed-long non-coding RNAs,DE-lncRNAs)与接受免疫治疗的HCC患者预后有关;在肝癌患者肿瘤组织和正常组织中发现107个与铜死亡相关的DE-lncRNAs,其中16个候选DE-lncRNAs与HCC患者预后高度相关。铜死亡调节因子包括脂酰化TCA循环途径的调节因子(FDX1、LIPT1、LIAS、DLD、MTF1、GLS、CDKN2A、DLAT、PDHA1、PDHB、DBT、GCSH等)[29]、铜转运蛋白(SLC1A7、ATP7A和ATP10B等)[57]、铜死亡相关lncRNA(AL591767.1等)[58]和微RNA(microRNA,miRNA;hsa-miR-653、hsa-miR-216a等)[59],均可用于生物信息学研究中的肿瘤微环境浸润特征和免疫治疗反应分析,这些基因的筛选结果对于肝癌相关治疗与预后模型的构建研究具有一定的参考意义。

通过泛癌研究[60]发现,铜载体诱导细胞死亡的关键基因FDX1可以作为肝癌免疫治疗疗效预测因子和预后生物标志物。敲低铜死亡相关基因LIPT1对肝癌细胞的增殖和侵袭具有抑制作用,且该基因相关风险评分可作为肝癌患者预后的独立预测因子[61]。肿瘤微环境与免疫细胞浸润和肿瘤突变负荷相关,是免疫治疗疗效的影响因素。铜死亡相关基因与肿瘤微环境中免疫细胞的浸润有关,检测其表达可推断患者免疫治疗获益的可能[62-65]。此外,铜死亡可用于评估肝癌的表征。基因集富集分析(Gene Set Enrichment Analysis,GSEA)提示,在NK细胞介导的细胞毒性反应、TCA循环、GSH代谢、ATP结合盒(ATP-binding cassette,ABC)转运蛋白、Notch信号通路、ErbB信号通路和细胞色素p450对外源性物质的代谢等中,肝癌患者的铜死亡相关基因表达存在差异富集[66]。但这些研究具有一定的局限性,大多为基于公共数据的生物信息学研究,所构建模型是否有效需要进一步基础或临床研究证实。肝癌细胞对铜的高需求和对铜螯合作用的增敏提示降低肿瘤细胞中的铜含量能抑制肿瘤的生长,Valli等[39]提出的铜对于PD-1疗效的负调控作用可以佐证这一观点。

4. 结 语

铜死亡除在肝癌中起关键作用外,还在多种肿瘤中扮演重要作用。目前有部分研究对铜死亡在乳腺癌、宫颈癌、肾透明细胞癌(clear-cell renal cell carcinoma,ccRCC)中的作用进行探讨[67-74]。乳腺癌组织中CTR1/SLC31A1过表达,提示铜过载的存在;且CTR1/SLC31A1、ATP7A、ATP7B和DLAT表达与乳腺癌患者的总生存期显著相关[70-71]。铜死亡相关长链非编码RNA(long noncoding RNA,lncRNA)SOX21-AS1与宫颈癌及乳腺癌的侵袭、转移有关,提示铜死亡可能参与肿瘤的发生和发展,为肿瘤的治疗提供了新的靶点[67, 72-73]。乳腺癌1号基因(breast cancer susceptibility gene 1,BRCA1)关联蛋白1(BRCA1-associated protein-1,BAP1)通过去泛素化实现肿瘤抑制,组蛋白甲基转移酶含SET域蛋白2(SET domain containing 2,SETD2)与RNA聚合酶II作用介导转录延长及错配修复[74];BRCA1、BAP1、SETD2的突变影响基因组稳定性,驱动ccRCC的转化、进展,与ccRCC的铜调节因子失调和铜死亡发生之间或许具有潜在联系。

铜是正常细胞和肿瘤细胞必需的金属元素,铜缺乏和铜过载均不利于细胞的生存。高于或低于“安全浓度”的铜对于肿瘤细胞均有抑制作用,因此铜死亡和铜耗竭均能作为抗肿瘤的策略。当现有治疗方法效果不理想时,可以将铜死亡作为补充疗法:与化学治疗药物联用以增强对肿瘤的杀伤作用并改善耐药,与免疫治疗药物联用以应对免疫逃逸。研发铜稳态调节剂、上调铜转运相关蛋白CTR1和铜死亡相关基因FDX1表达也是目前研究的方向。伊利司莫是代表性的具有抗肿瘤作用的铜载体药物,但仍需更多动物试验和临床试验验证其安全性和有效性。铜螯合剂通过耗竭肿瘤细胞内的铜来治疗肿瘤。动物试验与临床研究[75-76]显示,肝癌个体与健康个体血清中的铜和金属硫蛋白等存在差异,这些因子也许可以作为肝癌无创筛查或预后评估的候选生物标志物;但此种差异的特异性还需要进一步研究。总之,铜与铜死亡在肝癌中的应用潜能是巨大的,需要开展更多的机制研究与临床试验进行有效探索。

基金资助

湖南省自然科学基金(2022JJ30837)。

This work was supported by the Natural Science Foundation of Hunan Province (2022JJ30837), China.

利益冲突声明

作者声称无任何利益冲突。

作者贡献

陈蕾洁 论文撰写与修改;刘德良 论文指导;谭玉勇 论文指导与修改。所有作者阅读并同意最终的文本。

原文网址

http://xbyxb.csu.edu.cn/xbwk/fileup/PDF/2023091368.pdf

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