Abstract
补体系统是先天性免疫系统的重要组成部分,由50多个分泌蛋白和膜结合蛋白组成,有助于清除体内的凋亡细胞和入侵的病原体以限制炎症免疫反应,从而在维持大脑稳态中发挥重要作用。生理情况下,补体活性受到严格的调控,以保护自身细胞不被随意攻击或防止补体蛋白的沉积。然而,大脑中补体级联反应的过度激活或调节异常可能导致神经元损伤和大脑功能紊乱。最近的研究指出精神类疾病患者存在补体分子的改变,并通过调控神经元和神经胶质细胞功能从而在疾病的发生、发展中发挥重要作用。总结补体系统在精神类疾病(如精神分裂症、自闭症谱系障碍、重度抑郁症、双相情感障碍、焦虑症等)中的研究进展,可为预防和控制由补体系统异常激活所导致的精神类疾病提供新思路。
Keywords: 补体, 精神类疾病, 精神分裂症, 重度抑郁症
Abstract
The complement system is an important part of the innate immune system, including more than 50 secretory proteins and membrane-bound proteins, and it contributes to the clearance of apoptotic cells and invading pathogens to limit inflammatory immune responses and maintaining brain homeostasis. Complement activity is strictly regulated to protect cells from random attacks or to prevent the deposition of complement proteins in physiological cases. However, overactivation or abnormal regulation of the complement cascade in the brain can lead to neuronal damage and brain dysfunction. Recent studies have pointed out that changes in complement molecules exist in patients with psychiatric diseases and play an important role in the occurrence and development of diseases by regulating the function of neurons and glial cells. Therefore, summarizing the latest research progress of complement system in psychiatric diseases such as schizophrenia, autism spectrum disorder, major depression, bipolar disorder and anxiety disorder can provide new ideas for preventing and controlling psychiatric diseases caused by abnormal activation of complement system.
Keywords: complement, psychiatric disorders, schizophrenia, major depression disorder
补体系统是先天性免疫系统关键的组成部分,由50多个分泌蛋白和膜结合蛋白组成,通过快速识别和消除病原体、细胞碎片和错误折叠的蛋白质参与免疫防御调节。补体活性受到严格的调控,以保护自身细胞不被随意攻击或防止补体蛋白的沉积[1]。补体在神经系统,尤其是在维持大脑稳态中发挥至关重要的作用。病理条件下,大脑中补体成分的异常表达和激活不仅导致神经炎症反应、突触过度清除及神经退行性病变,还会诱导精神类疾病的发生[2]。本文拟探讨补体系统在大脑内的作用,总结补体系统在精神类疾病中的研究进展。
1. 补体系统
1.1. 补体系统概述
补体是一组具有酶活性和自我调节能力的蛋白质。在外周神经系统中,补体主要由肝细胞合成,也可由肝外细胞如白细胞、脂肪细胞等合成,是免疫系统的重要组成部分[3]。补体常以无活性的前体形式存在,当受到病原体或异常内源性物质刺激时,其在严密调控下,通过一系列酶促级联反应活化,从而发挥免疫检测,达到清除细胞碎片的作用[4]。在中枢神经系统中,补体成分主要由神经元、小胶质细胞、星形胶质细胞等多种细胞合成,在生理情况下发挥神经保护作用;而在大脑受到损伤、感染等病理情况下,外周的补体通过受损的血脑屏障也可进入中枢发挥作用[5]。此外,不同的补体通路还在神经祖细胞的增殖、分化和迁移中发挥着重要作用。补体在神经系统的生理和病理过程中发挥着不可或缺的作用。
1.2. 补体级联的激活
作为一种生物级联免疫反应体系,补体系统可通过经典途径、凝集素途径和旁路途径这3大途径激活形成级联反应(图1)。1)经典途径:抗原抗体复合物等与补体C1结合触发此途径。C1是由C1q、C1r、C1s构成的复合体,C1q与复合物结合后改变C1的构象并激活C1s[6-7],活化的C1s将C4和C2分别裂解为C4a、C4b、C2a、C2b,这些片段共同形成C3转化酶C4b2a,将C3切割成C3a和C3b,C3a与C4b2a结合形成C5转化酶C4b2a3b,切割补体C5[8]。2)凝集素途径:甘露糖结合凝集素(mannose-binding lectin,MBL)与病原体表面的甘露糖残基结合,激活MBL相关丝氨酸蛋白酶后活化C4、C2并形成C4b2a,与C3b结合生成C5转化酶C4b2a3b,再将C5切割为C5a和C5b[9]。3)旁路途径:由C3自发的水解反应启动。B因子和D因子分解加入,介导C3转化酶C3(H2O)Bb和C3bBb的产生[10]。此酶将C3切割为C3a和C3b,并形成C5转化酶C3bBb3b,后者继续切割C5,最终介导末端膜攻击复合物(membrane attack complex,MAC)的组装。C1q、C3b和C4b以及MBL还可作为补体调理素,通过与补体受体1(complement receptor 1,CR1)结合[11],刺激中性粒细胞和单核/巨噬细胞吞噬病原体。C3a和C5a分别通过受体C3aR和C5aR/CD88发出信号,刺激肥大细胞和嗜碱性粒细胞释放血管活性物质(如组胺和血清素),从而增加血管通透性;还可通过诱导促炎介质来刺激炎症反应[12]。MAC将其自身插入到病原体的细胞膜中,并通过在细胞膜上形成孔来诱导病原体的裂解[13]。
图1.
补体系统级联反应
Figure 1 Complement activation cascades
Complement cascade which in nervous system has three pathways: the classical pathway, the lectin pathway, and the alternative pathway. The C1 complex and MBL complex lead to cleavage of C2 and C4 into C2a, C2b, C4a, and C4b. The subsequent formation of C3 convertases (C4bC2a for the classical and lectin pathways, and C3bBb for the alternative pathway) culminates in generation of the anaphylatoxin C3a and opsonin C3b. Deposition of C3b on an antigen surface can also initiate a feedback amplification loop. Then, C5 convertase formation (C4bC2aC3b for the classical and lectin pathways, and C3bBbC3b for the alternative pathway) contributes to generation of anaphylatoxins C5a and C5b, with C5b initiating MAC formation. MBL: Mannose-binding lectin; MAC: Membrane attack complex; MASP: MBL-associated serine protease; FB: Factor B; FD: Factor D.
1.3. 补体在中枢神经系统的生理功能
补体系统在发育性大脑中的功能一般可分为3类:促进神经祖细胞增殖、神经元迁移和突触修剪[14]。补体可促进中枢神经系统中祖细胞或干细胞的增殖[15],如C5a-C5aR可通过非典型蛋白激酶C(protein kinase C,PKC)通路促进胚胎神经细胞增殖,C5aR1敲除后会导致成年小鼠持续的大脑微观结构改变以及行为变化[16]。C3a-C3aR可调节成年小鼠海马脑室下区(subventricular zone,SVZ)和海马齿状回(dentate gyrus,DG)的神经发育,C3aR缺陷的小鼠虽然大脑神经发育大致正常,但记忆回路仍然受损,这表明完整的C3a-C3aR通路对维持正常认知功能是必要的[17]。此外,补体受体2(complement receptor 2,CR2)可通过与C3d的结合负向调节大脑内海马的神经发生[18]。这些结果表明补体有维持神经祖细胞增殖稳态的作用。有研究[19]表明:补体系统中的凝集素途径是新皮层神经元迁移的主要参与者,敲除MASP1、MASP2或C3将导致神经元迁移紊乱和皮质厚度异常。C3a和C5a在神经迁移中也发挥重要作用,在斑马鱼的发育过程中,C3和C3aR1定位于神经嵴,能控制细胞的集体迁移,敲低C3aR将导致神经嵴细胞从正常的迁移流中分散;联合使用C3aR/C5aR1双激动剂,可以恢复异常的神经迁移方式[20]。此外,由于神经元的数量和突触连接在出生后的发育过程中急剧增加,必要的突触修剪对于神经元网络的正确连接十分重要。突触修剪是消除“太弱”或“太强”突触的主要途径[4, 7, 14],其中补体激活的经典途径被证明参与中枢神经系统的突触修剪。研究[11]表明:C1q、C3或CR3在出生后的突触发育和修剪中起着至关重要的作用,其缺陷将导致大脑新皮质中突触密度增加。此外,补体受体3(complement receptor 3,CR3)与调理素C3b结合后可调控小胶质细胞选择性吞噬异常的突触,从而有助于维持神经系统的稳态[21]。
2. 补体系统对精神类疾病的影响
2.1. 精神分裂症
精神分裂症(schizophrenia,SZ)是一种慢性精神障碍性疾病,通常出现在青春期后期或成年早期,症状包括妄想、幻觉、言语组织混乱、社交障碍和迟钝等[22]。SZ患者在发育期间表现出皮质层树突棘密度降低和皮质层变薄加剧,因此,SZ可能与出生后的过度突触修剪有关[23-24]。
与SZ相关的补体系统的研究主要集中在经典通路成分的补体溶血活性上,特别是C1q、C2、C3和C4的变化[25]。大规模全基因组关联研究(genome-wide association study,GWAS)[26]发现:6号染色体上的主要组织相容性复合体(major histocompatibility complex,MHC)基因组区域与SZ有关,确定SZ与Sushi多结构域蛋白1(CUB and Sushi multiple domains 1,CSMD1)的联系。CSMD1是一种经典补体通路的抑制剂,可通过降解C4和C3来调节补体系统[27],其缺乏与SZ的发展密切相关。然而,对于SZ患者与血液中C3水平相关的结论存在争议。有研究[28]发现,与健康志愿者相比,SZ患者C3水平没有改变或升高;而另有研究[29]发现,患者血清C3水平降低,且与症状严重程度呈负相关。造成差异的原因尚不清楚,但可能与特定人群的遗传和环境风险因素或疾病的阶段(急性和慢性)有关。SZ患者大脑的尸检分析显示C4A的表达高于对照组[30]。此外,SZ风险相关等位基因与C4A基因的拷贝数变异之间存在很强的相关性[25],并且编码C4基因的C4A和C4B分别与SZ表现出不同程度的联系[31]。在SZ患者中还发现了附着于C1q-循环复合物(C1q-circulating immune complexes,C1q-CIC)的C1q水平增高,血细胞上的CR1可以与C1q-CIC结合并介导免疫复合物的清除[32]。患有SZ的婴儿的母亲血清C1q水平升高[33],这表明母亲C1q水平升高可能是导致婴儿患SZ的一个重要因素。
Yilmaz等[34]在人源化小鼠模型中发现:C4A在内侧前额叶皮质中的过表达导致小胶质细胞的突触吞噬和突触细化的作用加剧,且小鼠表现出类似SZ的异常社会行为。但C4的缺失并不影响皮质突触密度,小鼠也没有表现出行为缺陷,这表明C4对大脑内侧前额叶的正常发育不是必需的,或存在其他代偿途径[34]。此外,上调C1q可以增强小胶质细胞的吞噬活性,表明SZ可能与C1q介导的过度突触吞噬相关[35]。
尽管已有较多证据证明SZ与补体的关系,但是大多为相关性研究,缺乏直接的因果联系。在今后的研究中,可以通过基因特异性敲除及注射相关抑制剂来探究不同补体与SZ之间的因果联系,并进一步关注突触吞噬或修剪在SZ中的作用。
2.2. 抑郁症
抑郁症是一类以情绪低落、兴趣丧失等临床表现为主的精神疾病,严重者可出现自杀念头和行为,但其具体的病理生理机制尚不清楚[36]。研究[37-39]表明免疫激活-炎症作为导致该疾病的危险潜在因素,在重度抑郁症中发挥重要作用。补体作为免疫-炎症的重要环节,在重度抑郁症(major depressive disorder,MDD)疾病进展过程中表现出不同的改变。MDD患者的脑脊液(cerebro-spinal fluid,CSF)中发现了多种补体成分如C3、C4等的变化。有研究[39]在197例MDD患者中发现血清补体C1q水平显著升高。Crider等[40]在抑郁自杀患者的前额叶皮层中发现C3表达显著增加。此外,在MDD患者脑脊液中还发现C5水平显著升高[38]。多种补体水平的变化表明补体或许可作为抑郁症诊断或判断其预后的标志物。
补体可通过星形胶质细胞和小胶质细胞参与神经炎症。在小胶质细胞激活的早期阶段,C1q的升高与促炎细胞因子如白细胞介素-1(interleukin-1β,IL-1β)、肿瘤坏死因子-α(tumour necrosis factor-α,TNF-α)和早期生长反应因子-1(early growth response-1,Egr-1)的表达增加呈正相关[41],并且Egr-1可进一步增加细胞间黏附分子-1(intercellular adhesion molecule,ICAM-1)和趋化因子巨噬细胞炎症蛋白-2(macrophage inflammatory protein-2,MIP-2)的表达,从而诱导神经系统炎症[42]。缺乏C3和C3aR的小鼠对慢性应激诱导的抑郁样行为易感性降低[40]。此外,通过阻断小鼠大脑海马中星形胶质细胞C3a-C3aR通路可以缓解其抑郁样行为[43],这可能是与抑制小胶质细胞细胞M1极化和降低炎症因子水平有关。在补体C5aR敲除的小鼠中,小胶质细胞迁移减少[44];C5a-肽疫苗可抑制小胶质细胞激活和神经炎症[45],说明C5水平的升高可能会促进小胶质细胞的激活和迁移,改变免疫条件,从而诱导中枢神经系统的神经炎症。因此,针对补体通路进行药物研发可能是抑郁症防治的新策略。
2.3. 自闭症谱系障碍
自闭症谱系障碍(autism spectrum disorder,ASD)是一组异质性早期神经发育疾病,其特征是社交认知受损、语言障碍和行为重复[46]。ASD的神经病理学改变包括早期皮质面积的增加、小脑浦肯野细胞数量的减少、神经元迁移异常、大脑发育过程中树突突触密度增加等[47-48]。尸检样本分析显示:ASD患者的额中回C2、C5的mRNA水平升高,C1q、C3和C4的mRNA编码水平降低[49-50]。研究[51]发现自闭症患者及其母亲的C4B等位基因缺失的频率增加,并且血清中C4B蛋白质水平下降。在ASD患者的诱导性多能干细胞(induced pluripotent stem cells,iPSC)来源的星形胶质细胞中,补体C4的mRNA和蛋白质的表达水平明显较低[52]。而C3基因的缺失导致小鼠的社交缺陷和重复行为[49],表明C3在ASD的病理生理学中发挥作用。
关于补体功能障碍和ASD之间的关联,仍缺少动物实验和临床实验数据进一步证实。GWAS未发现与ASD显著相关的补体基因的改变[53],但ASD患者的外周血和大脑中补体成分的改变表明补体可能以其他形式参与ASD的发生、发展。但是针对补体的干预能否纠正自闭症样行为,尚缺乏直接的实验证据,未来针对这一方向的研究可能有助于开发自闭症的治疗药物。
2.4. 双相情感障碍
双相情感障碍(bipolar disorder,BD)是一种高度流行的慢性情绪障碍,其特征是反复发作的躁狂、轻躁狂和重度抑郁症。研究[54]表明BD有多种病因,包括遗传和环境因素。基于BD患者中单核细胞和小胶质细胞的激活以及促炎因子水平的升高,表明免疫激活-炎症在该疾病中发挥重要作用。
在GWAS中MHC区域(包括C2、C4和B因子补体基因)被证明与BD相关[55]。研究[53]发现,慢性BD患者中的血清补体水平显著降低,而外周血单核细胞C1q、C4和B因子的mRNA表达水平显著升高。这可能是由于补体系统的过度消耗,导致补体在mRNA水平上代偿性升高。此外,与健康志愿者组相比,BD患者的C3a和C5a水平均有所升高[56]。然而,由于疾病的复杂性和异质性,BD的动物模型难以开展,补体与BD发病机制之间因果联系的研究仍需进一步探索。
3. 结 语
正常激活的补体通路可参与维持大脑环境的稳态,协调神经元和神经胶质细胞的发育、迁移、突触修剪等。当大脑受刺激后,异常激活的补体反应会导致精神类疾病的发生。补体系统对精神类疾病如SZ、抑郁症、ASD、BD等的发生、发展具有广泛的影响。深入了解补体系统激活的机制将有助于促进神经系统疾病靶向治疗的研究。
然而,许多问题仍然未知,如补体系统中不同补体成分在精神类疾病发生和发展的不同时期有何作用,这些作用又是由何具体的机制所致,同一补体成分是否可以通过不同的通路在疾病中发挥不同的作用,是否存在其他重要的补体调节蛋白,其相应的功能又是什么。未来对神经发育和神经精神类疾病的分子机制仍需进一步研究。
基金资助
湖南省自然科学基金(2022JJ30486)。
This work was supported by the Natural Science Foundation of Hunan Province, China (2022JJ30486).
利益冲突声明
作者声称无任何利益冲突。
作者贡献
霍雅洁 论文选题,文献查阅,论文撰写;陈婕 论文修订;张澳美 文献收集;周翠兰、曹文宇 论文指导和修订。所有作者阅读并同意最终的文本。
原文网址
http://xbyxb.csu.edu.cn/xbwk/fileup/PDF/2023101539.pdf
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