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Journal of Central South University Medical Sciences logoLink to Journal of Central South University Medical Sciences
. 2022 Sep 28;47(9):1281–1288. [Article in Chinese] doi: 10.11817/j.issn.1672-7347.2022.210589

慢性应激促进肿瘤发展的机制及干预方式

Mechanism of chronic stress to promote tumor development and the intervention

LIU Yi 1,2,2, ZENG Yue 1, LI Yizheng 1, KE Jiawen 1,2, PAN Yue 1, LIU Xiaohan 1, PENG Yurong 1, WU Fang 1,3,4,5,6,
Editor: 陈 丽文
PMCID: PMC10930318  PMID: 36411713

Abstract

Chronic stress is a serial of non-specific neuroendocrine reactions in the body when stimulated by stressors for a long time, which has been shown to have a significant effect on tumor development. Chronic stress can activate the hypothalamus-pituitary-adrenal axis and the sense-adrenal myelin system, promote catecholamine and adrenal corticosteroid secretion, regulate the downstream pathways at all levels, and modulate the secretion of immune cells and immune factors, inhibit protective immune response, and induce inflammation, thus promoting tumor cell proliferation and metastasis. Some drugs and psychotherapy can alleviate the patient’s stress state, block the nerve signal transmission at all levels of access, regulate the immune system, or can become an effective means to intervene in chronic stress in tumor patients for clinical treatment to provide reference for intervention ideas. However, due to lack of relevant clinical trials, the clinical intervention effect of various drugs and psychotherapy is uncertain and needs more studies to verify the effect.

Keywords: tumor, chronic stress, endocrine, immunity, intervention


应激是指机体在受到各种强烈因素刺激时所出现的以交感神经兴奋、垂体-肾上腺皮质分泌增多为主的一系列神经内分泌反应及由此而引起的一系列非特异性反应。应激状态会导致维持认知、决策和情绪的神经回路失衡[1],表现为焦虑、抑郁等症状[2]。应激分为急性应激和慢性应激。急性应激主要出现在受到威胁、挑战等紧急情况时,表现为保护机制的加强;而慢性应激则是在机体长时间受到各种因素刺激时出现的以免疫系统被抑制、神经内分泌紊乱等为主要表现的稳态失衡反应。

慢性应激对总体患癌风险的影响十分显著,高强度压力可使总体癌症发病率增加6%,并且与男性癌症发病率的相关性更甚[3]。在一项癌症幸存者疾病归因的研究[4]中,有12%的患者自述其癌症由长期压力引起。慢性应激状态可以显著增加患乳腺癌的风险,并且降低治疗的依从性,导致病死率升高[5]。重度抑郁与常见癌症患者的生存时间较短有关[6]。本综述将从神经内分泌与免疫途径两方面阐述慢性应激促进肿瘤发展的机制以及干预手段的最新研究进展。

1. 慢性应激促进肿瘤发生与发展的机制

慢性应激主要通过神经内分泌与免疫途径,调控应激激素、免疫细胞、免疫因子等的活性,再由下游通路促进肿瘤细胞的增殖与侵袭,抑制凋亡,从而促进肿瘤发展。

1.1. 神经内分泌途径

1.1.1. 下丘脑-垂体-肾上腺轴

慢性应激通过神经内分泌途径,激活下丘脑-垂体-肾上腺(hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal,HPA)轴。在HPA轴上,下丘脑室旁核分泌促肾上腺皮质激素释放激素,刺激垂体前叶产生促肾上腺皮质激素,进而诱导肾上腺皮质激素释放[7]。而糖皮质激素(glucocorticoid,GC)的增加可以刺激肿瘤生长[8]。GC可以通过诱导型一氧化氮合酶(inducible nitric oxide synthase,iNOS)增加一氧化氮(NO)的含量,引起DNA损伤、氧化应激上调[9]。而在三阴性乳腺癌(triple negative breast cancer,TNBC)细胞中GC与糖皮质激素应答原件(glucocorticoid response element,GRE)结合,直接调节乳腺癌进展的相关基因,促进乳腺癌的发展[10]。GC-糖皮质激素受体(glucocorticoid receptor,GR)-周期蛋白依赖性激酶1(cyclin-dependent kinases 1,CDK1)信号可以诱导结肠癌细胞的增殖与侵袭,促进肿瘤的异质性和转移[11]。血清/糖皮质激素诱导激酶1(serum and glucocorticoid-regulated protein kinase 1,SGK1)失活,阻断GC的活化,可以对肿瘤细胞起抑制作用[12]

1.1.2. 交感-肾上腺髓质系统

慢性应激同样经过交感-肾上腺髓质系统刺激交感神经系统(sympathetic nerve system,SNS)兴奋,促进儿茶酚胺的释放。儿茶酚胺的增加同样可以刺激肿瘤生长[8]。肾上腺素与β-肾上腺素能受体结合,通过激活乳酸脱氢酶A(lactate dehydrogenase A,LDHA)生成乳酸,再通过泛素特异性蛋白酶28(ubiquitin-specific protease 28,USP28)介导的去泛素化作用,调控癌蛋白MYC稳定性,随后,MYC激活Snail家族转录抑制因子2(snail family transcriptional repressor 2,SLUG),即通过LDHA/USP28/MYC/SLUG信号轴[13]转导压力信号,促进肿瘤发生与发展。去甲肾上腺素(norepinephrine,NE)可通过诱导细胞外信号调节蛋白激酶(extracellular regulated protein kinases,ERK)和环磷腺苷效应元件结合蛋白(cyclic-AMP response binding protein,CREB)的磷酸化,促进口腔鳞癌(oral squamous cell carcinoma,OSCC)侵袭和增殖,也可增强癌症干细胞(cancer stem cells,CSCs)样表型,上调肿瘤干细胞标志物的表达。有学者[14]连续给予移植有人OSCC细胞的裸鼠NE,发现小鼠肿瘤显著增长。NE通过激活胰腺导管腺癌 (pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma,PDAC)中的 Notch-1通路,抑制肿瘤细胞分化,促进其生长[15]。也有研究[16]利用异丙肾上腺素反复作用于人外周血单个核细胞(peripheral blood mononuclear cell,PBMC),发现异丙肾上腺素可以明显诱导DNA损伤,增加患癌风险,而通过β-肾上腺素能受体拮抗剂普萘洛尔处理,可以部分防止异丙肾上腺素诱导的 DNA 链断裂。醛酮还原酶家族1成员B1(aldo-keto reductase family 1 member B1,AKR1B1)与β2-肾上腺素能受体(β2-adrenergic receptor,β2-AR)同样存在潜在的相互作用,β2-AR表达上调促使AKR1B1释放,进而使磷酸化的细胞外信号调节蛋白激酶1/2(p-ERK1/2)上调,通过ERK1/2途径促进肿瘤细胞增殖并抑制其凋亡,诱导肿瘤的发生与发展[17]

慢性应激激活SNS,导致局部和全身儿茶酚胺水平升高,被激活的β肾上腺素能信号作为淋巴活动的有效调节因子,直接调控肿瘤细胞中血管内皮生长因子(vascular endothelial growth factors,VEGFs)中血管内皮生长因子C(vascular endothelial growth factor C,VEGFC)的表达,同时异丙肾上腺素也可以上调VEGFC的表达,使更多的VEGFC与其受体结合,促进肿瘤淋巴管生成和淋巴结转移,从而促进肿瘤细胞的转移[18]。另外,β-肾上腺素能信号通过诱导由趋化因子CCL2/趋化因子受体CCR2轴驱动的单核细胞/巨噬细胞的应答,促进肿瘤细胞的肺转移定植,即慢性应激在扩散的肿瘤细胞到达之前就对转移前的肺产生严重影响[19]

1.2. 免疫途径

慢性应激以免疫途径影响肿瘤发生与发展主要表现在抑制保护性免疫反应与诱导炎症两个方面。但慢性应激不仅仅直接调控免疫系统,应激激素也同样参与调控的过程。GC在慢性应激状态下对自然杀伤细胞(natural killer cell,NK)有抑制作用,导致其对肿瘤的免疫监视减弱[20]。GC诱导的转录抑制分子TSC22D3(glucocorticoid-induced leucine zipper,GILZ)上调,从而导致慢性应激状态下的免疫抑制,影响肿瘤的发生与发展[21]。促肾上腺皮质激素释放因子1(corticotropin-releasing factor 1,CRF1)是心理应激诱导的肥大细胞脱颗粒和促进肿瘤发生的调节因子。而CRF1阴性的小鼠往往伴有包括白细胞介素1β(interleukin-1β,IL-1β)、白细胞介素6(interleukin-6,IL-6)和肿瘤坏死因子α(tumor necrosis factor-α,TNF-α)表达减少等较轻的炎症反应,以及较低的患癌风险[22]。此外,慢性应激介导的血清素、多巴胺、儿茶酚胺等的改变均可抑制NK活性,从而影响机体正常保护性免疫[20]

1.2.1. 抑制保护性免疫反应

慢性应激抑制多种保护性免疫反应,增加受肿瘤诱导的免疫抑制细胞并损害细胞免疫的细胞毒性,使患癌风险增加,并促进肿瘤转移[22]。慢性应激抑制招募T细胞到免疫激活部位的皮肤T细胞虏获趋化因子(CTACK/CCL27)的基因表达,并抑制保护性CD4+和CD8+T细胞浸润,抑制辅助T细胞(Th1)型细胞因子(IL-12和IFN-γ)[23],或通过恒定自然杀伤T细胞(invariant natural killer T cells,iNKT)直接抑制Th1和Th2型反应[24],导致整体的免疫保护受到抑制。同时,慢性应激可以诱导局部免疫抑制,参与髓样白细胞分化、抗原信号通路、中性粒细胞趋化和免疫系统过程的基因下调。慢性应激可上调程序性死亡受体配体-1(programmed cell death-ligand 1,PD-L1)的表达,降低白细胞分化抗原CD8水平,加快肺癌的恶化进程[25]

1.2.2. 诱导促炎因子释放

慢性应激同时会导致循环性促炎因子上调,血清白细胞介素IL-6、IL-1B、IL-10、IL-23、IL-27[24]以及C反应蛋白(C-reactive protein,CRP)水平持续升高,并将细胞因子平衡从促进肿瘤保护性细胞免疫的Th1细胞因子向促进抗体免疫的Th2细胞因子转变,这些促炎因子水平的持续升高会导致慢性炎症。而慢性炎症被认为是肿瘤启动、进展和转移的关键因素。慢性炎症通过增强氧化应激、诱导DNA突变、释放基质金属蛋白酶(MMPs)、诱导血管生成和转移因子等途径促进肿瘤生长与转移[23]

慢性应激不仅激活HPA轴与SNS,促使各应激激素上调,通过各下游通路促进肿瘤细胞增殖与转移,同时也作用于免疫系统抑制正常的免疫保护、调节促炎因子,促进肿瘤进展。实际上,神经内分泌途径下的应激激素同样参与对免疫系统的调节,影响肿瘤的发生与发展。由此更加证实了肿瘤作为一种全身性疾病,表现为神经、内分泌和免疫系统的功能障碍,慢性应激通过调节神经-内分泌-免疫系统(neuro-endocrine-immunity system,NEIS)轴促进肿瘤的发生与进展[26](图1)。

图1.

图1

慢性应激影响肿瘤发生发展的机制

Figure 1 Mechanism of chronic stress affecting tumorigenesis and development

CTACK/CCL27:皮肤T细胞虏获趋化因子;GILZ:糖皮质激素诱导的转录抑制分子TSC22D3;CDK1:周期蛋白依赖性激酶1;GRE:糖皮质激素应答原件;p-ERK:磷酸化细胞外信号调节蛋白激酶;p-CREB:磷酸化环磷腺苷效应元件结合蛋白;LDHA:乳酸脱氢酶A;USP28:泛素特异性蛋白酶28;MYC:癌蛋白MYC;SLUG:Snail家族转录抑制因子2;AKR1B1:醛酮还原酶家族1成员B1。

2. 对肿瘤患者慢性应激的干预方式

目前主要通过药物疗法与心理疗法两种方式对肿瘤患者的慢性应激进行干预(表1)。

表1.

肿瘤患者慢性应激的干预方式、途径、特点及局限性

Table 1 Intervention methods, approaches, characteristics, and limitations of chronic stress in cancer patients

干预方式 干预途径 特点 局限性
药物疗法 抗抑郁药 缓解应激状态 可能是治疗小细胞肺癌和神经内分泌肿瘤的有效策略 或对肿瘤病程有不利影响,证据不足
应激激素阻滞剂 GC阻滞剂 阻滞应激激素传导 疗效暂无定论
β受体阻滞剂 已在临床上广泛使用,且有较多研究证实其潜在价值,可以增强肿瘤治疗疗效,减少转移 无法在影像学或病理学上发现对原发肿瘤的影响
抗炎与抗氧化治疗 CMI 缓解应激状态、减少氧化应激以及一些免疫因子释放 对肿瘤的影响未得到证实
非甾体类抗炎药 诊断前长期低剂量服用 证据不足
维生素C 减少LDHA表达 强抗氧化性 证据不足
心理疗法 正念疗法 改善应激状态 对于围手术期的肿瘤患者尤为重要,长期、多次治疗效果更佳 个性化、普遍性无法保证
接纳与承诺疗法
艺术疗法

GC:糖皮质激素;CMI:3-[(4-氯苯基)硒基]-1-甲基-1H-吲哚;LDHA:乳酸脱氢酶A。

2.1. 药物疗法

药物疗法主要通过缓解应激状态、阻滞神经信号和应激激素的传导来实现对肿瘤患者慢性应激的干预,也可以通过抗炎、抗氧化治疗,重构机体免疫系统进行干预,从而切断神经信号传导,降低免疫抑制水平,增强免疫治疗等的疗效,抑制肿瘤的发生与发展。

2.1.1. 抗抑郁药

抗抑郁药物和抗焦虑药物对于缓解成年癌症患者的抑郁和焦虑情绪有一定效果。5-羟色胺再摄取抑制剂类药物(selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors,SSRIs)被广泛用于治疗抑郁和焦虑症状,三环类抗抑郁药可能是治疗小细胞肺癌和神经内分泌肿瘤的有效药物[27],但三环类抗抑郁药由于可在一定程度上促进去甲肾上腺素信号释放,或对肿瘤病程发展有不利影响[28]。对于癌症患者而言,抗抑郁药的疗效仍缺乏广泛且具有说服力的证据[29]

2.1.2. 应激激素阻滞剂

2.1.2.1. 糖皮质激素阻滞剂

通过构建重复社会挫败小鼠应激模型并反复注射GC受体拮抗剂米非司酮(mifepristone,MIFE)发现,MIFE可以减轻小鼠的焦虑样行为以及应激引发的皮质酮水平飙升,并恢复免疫调节剂(氨甲蝶呤)对肿瘤生长的抑制作用[21]。事实上,GC在肿瘤治疗中的作用存在争议[28],因而GC阻滞剂的作用也同样没有定论。

2.1.2.2. β受体阻滞剂

β受体阻滞剂现已广泛用于高血压的治疗,且有较多研究[30-31]证实其在各信号通路的潜在价值。在一项对77名IIIA期非小细胞肺癌(non-small cell lung cancer,NSCLC)患者进行的回顾性研究[32]中,发现16名(61名患者未服用β受体阻滞剂)使用了β受体阻滞剂的患者1年总生存率(overall survival,OS)和无转移生存期(distant metastasis-free survival,DMFS)明显改善。但相关综述[28]显示在多项研究中受试者生存期缩短、无效或仅短暂延长。β受体阻滞剂的使用同时也可以增强肿瘤的治疗效果。应激激素通过β受体促进表皮生长因子受体-酪氨酸激酶抑制剂(epidermal growth factor receptor-tyrosine kinase inhibitor,EGFR-TKI)抵抗,因而β2肾上腺受体阻滞剂与EGFR TKI联用可消除耐药性,增强疗效[33]。在对NSCLC患者化学治疗影响的研究[30]中发现:β受体阻滞剂可以增强疗效,减少肿瘤转移,延长患者的生存期,但未在影像学或病理学上发现其对原发肿瘤有影响。

2.1.3. 抗炎与抗氧化治疗

2.1.3.1. 抗氧化和免疫调节的含硒化合物3-[(4-氯苯基)硒基]-1-甲基-1H-吲哚治疗

抗氧化和免疫调节的含硒化合物3-[(4-氯苯基)硒基]-1-甲基-1H-吲哚(3-[(4-chlor-ophenyl)selanyl]-1-methyl-1H-indole,CMI)治疗可以缓解肿瘤诱导的抑郁样行为和认知障碍,同时可减少核因子κB(nuclear factor kappa-B,NF-κB)、IL-TNF-αIL-10、吲哚胺2,3-双加氧酶(indoleamine 2,3-dioxygenase,IDO)、环氧化酶-2(cyclooxygenase-2,COX-2)的mRNA表达和氧化应激,抑制iNOS和COX-2活性。CMI治疗可以改善荷瘤小鼠的抑郁和认知障碍,但其在慢性应激对肿瘤影响的方面未得到证实[34],或可作为一种辅助治疗的方法。

2.1.3.2. 非甾体类抗炎药

在一项包括了2006年7月至2013年12月期间瑞典所有新确诊癌症患者的队列研究[35]中,发现在癌症诊断前1年服用阿司匹林,尤其是长期低剂量服用,可以使癌症后1年内抑郁、焦虑和压力相关疾病的发生率降低。而使用非阿司匹林的非甾体抗炎药与不使用非甾体抗炎药相比,患相关疾病的风险则会增加。

2.1.3.3. 维生素C

维生素C是免疫系统和癌症生物学行为的关键调节因子之一,但在应激环境下尚未得到充分的研究。维生素C可恢复慢性应激诱导的LDHA过表达,改变乳酸的产生,从而抑制乳腺癌干细胞中的USP28/MYC/SLUG轴[13],对抗应激相关的乳腺癌[22]。维生素C具有强抗氧化性,可能对应激下的肿瘤干预有较大潜力。

2.2. 心理疗法

慢性应激往往由于心理困扰产生负面情绪而促进癌症的发生发展,因而采用心理干预,改善患者慢性应激状态[36],可能影响肿瘤的发生与发展。研究[28]阐明了心理干预的有效性,尤其对于围手术期的肿瘤患者,心理治疗尤为重要,并且长期、频繁的心理疗法与其对于肿瘤患者的积极影响呈正相关。心理疗法也有望成为未来肿瘤治疗中不可或缺的一部分,但由于心理治疗的特殊性质,其普适性仍无定论[37]

2.2.1. 正念疗法

正念疗法可以改善肿瘤患者慢性应激状态。在一项10名癌症幸存者参与为期10周的实验中发现轻度瑜伽疗法与正念冥想可以有效改善患者的精神应激状态[38],缓解焦虑、抑郁症状。正念认知疗法可以改善乳腺癌患者的抑郁情绪,降低皮质醇、CRP等炎症指标[39],从而在总体上改善患者的身心状况。有学者[40]将正念训练、瑜伽、适度运动、认知重构等结合作为一种身心结合的疗法,发现受试的乳腺癌患者精神应激状况得到缓解,并且生活质量均得到提高。

2.2.2. 接纳与承诺疗法

接纳与承诺疗法作为一种新型认知行为疗法,旨在为患者提高应对和适应困难环境的能力,对改善乳腺癌患者的焦虑、抑郁等具有积极影响[41]。接纳与承诺疗法或是未来癌症护理的重要组成部分[42]

2.2.3. 艺术疗法

艺术疗法主要包括音乐、绘画和舞蹈等方法,对于改善乳腺癌患者的焦虑、抑郁症状也有积极作用[43],可以改善乳腺癌患者的身心健康[44]。该疗法在儿科肿瘤学领域同样具有良好的可行性[37]

3. 结 语

慢性应激通过神经内分泌途径,激活HPA轴和SNS,上调多种应激激素,同时以抑制免疫保护作用和诱导慢性炎症两个方面影响机体的免疫系统,调控多个信号通路促进肿瘤发展。因而可从缓解患者应激状态、阻滞应激信号传导以及重塑免疫系统等途径入手,干预慢性应激在肿瘤中的作用。一些应激激素阻滞剂以及抗炎、抗氧化药物的干预效果已被证实,但由于部分药物的治疗普遍缺少较大样本量的临床试验,其疗效目前尚不能确定。并且一些药物虽被证明可以抑制肿瘤的发展或改善应激状态,但无法说明药物具有直接的干预效果。同时,心理疗法的效果虽被承认,但由于其个性化、耗时长、费用较高等特点,难以在临床上被普遍应用。因此,即使现阶段有多种针对肿瘤患者慢性应激的干预措施可供选择,但其实际临床效果仍需要进一步研究证实。

基金资助

国家自然科学基金(82272806);湖南省自然科学基金优秀青年基金项目(2021JJ20088);中国胸部肿瘤研究协作组(CTONG)/广东省肺癌转化医学重点实验室英才计划(2017B030314120);长沙市科技计划项目(kq1907077);北京市希思科临床肿瘤学研究基金会科研基金(YHS202102-0130,YBMS2019-100)。

This work was supported by the National Natural Science Foundation (82272806), the Hunan Provincial Natural Science Foundation for Excellent Young Scholars (2021JJ20088), the Talent Program of Chinese Thoracic Oncology Group/Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Lung Cancer Translational Medicine (2017B030314120), the Changsha Science and Technology Planning Project (kq1907077), and the Science and Research Fund of Beijing Xisike Clinical Oncology Research Foundation (Y-HS202102-0130, Y-BMS2019-100), China.

利益冲突声明

作者声称无任何利益冲突。

作者贡献

刘祎、吴芳 论文构想、撰写;曾月、李艺正、柯嘉雯、潘越、刘笑寒、彭钰茸 论文修改。所有作者阅读并同意最终的文本。

原文网址

http://xbyxb.csu.edu.cn/xbwk/fileup/PDF/2022091281.pdf

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