Abstract
老年患者围手术期急性肾损伤(acute kidney injury,AKI)的发病风险随年龄的增长而不断增加。衰老的肾、并存多种慢性基础疾病以及暴露于潜在的肾应激源和肾毒素的药物或侵入性操作的机会增加共同构成了老年患者AKI的易感因素。老年患者非心脏手术围手术期AKI有其特殊的人群特征,因此有必要针对老年患者AKI在流行病学、临床诊断、危险因素和防治措施等方面的特点进行进一步的探讨,以提供有意义的临床意见来指导改善老年患者预后、加速疾病康复和减少医疗负担。由于AKI在老年患者中的发病率增长最快,并且与更差的预后相关;因此,早期发现、早期诊断和防治AKI对于围手术期的老年患者非常重要。未来有待在非心脏手术的老年AKI患者中开展大样本、多中心、随机对照的临床研究,以期为降低患者AKI的发生率和改善预后提供循证医学证据。
Keywords: 急性肾损伤, 老年, 围手术期, 非心脏手术, 易感, 预防, 治疗
Abstract
The risk of developing perioperative acute kidney injury (AKI) in elderly patients increases with age. The combined involvement of aging kidneys, coexisting multiple underlying chronic diseases, and increased exposure to potential renal stressors and nephrotoxic drugs or invasive procedures constitute susceptibility factors for AKI in elderly patients. The perioperative AKI in elderly patients undergoing noncardiac surgery has its own specific population characteristics, so it is necessary to further explore the characteristics of AKI in elderly patients in terms of epidemiology, clinical diagnosis, risk factors, and preventive and curative measures to provide meaningful clinical advice to improve prognosis, accelerate recovery, and reduce medical burden in elderly patients. Since AKI has the fastest-growing incidence in older patients and is associated with a worse prognosis, early detection, early diagnosis, and prevention of AKI are important for elderly patients in the perioperative period. Large, multicenter, randomized controlled clinical studies in elderly non-cardiac surgery patients with AKI can be conducted in the future, with the aim of providing the evidence to reduce of the incidence of AKI and to improve the prognosis of patients.
Keywords: acute kidney injury, elderly, peri-operation, non-cardiac surgery, susceptibility, prevention, treatment
急性肾损伤(acute kidney injury,AKI)是住院患者中常见且严重的并发症之一。接受大手术的患者中,有13%的患者会发生AKI[1],而在ICU患者中,AKI的发病率甚至超过50%[2]。与未发生AKI的患者相比,AKI患者相关的住院病死率、长期肾功能不全的风险、其他并发症的发生率、住院时间和住院费用都会随之增加[3-4]。近年来,AKI的发病率不断上升,尤其在老年人中更为明显。衰老的肾和慢性基础疾病共病的情况增加了老年患者发生AKI的风险[4],这使得老年患者围手术期AKI越来越受到重视。老年患者围手术期AKI有其特殊的人群特征。本文就老年患者非心脏手术围手术期AKI的流行病学、诊断、易感机制、危险因素以及防治措施进行综述。
1. AKI的流行病学
在老年患者中AKI的发病率增长最快,影响尤为严重[4]。一项大型回顾性队列研究[5]纳入了42 737名老年患者,分析不同年龄阶段AKI的发生率,结果表明年龄是AKI的危险因素,且与18~64岁人群(11.54%)相比,65~80岁(15.44%)和>80岁(22.22%)的老年患者AKI的绝对发病率较高。Li等[6]的研究结果也支持AKI发病率随着年龄增长而显著增高的观点,并表明AKI与老年人之间存在明显的年龄依赖关系。然而,专门针对老年患者围手术期AKI的研究并不多。表1列举了关于老年患者术后AKI发生率的研究[7-13],不同手术类型的术后AKI的发生率存在差异。在某些手术(如心脏大血管手术)[9]中报告的AKI发病率高达40%。老年AKI患者的预后较差,并且与住院时间延长、其他并发症的发病率和住院病死率的增高有关[7-8, 11-12]。值得注意的是,这些研究都仅使用血清肌酐诊断AKI。然而增加对尿量的测量次数可以提高AKI诊断的敏感性[14],这使得AKI在老年患者中的发生率可能被大大低估。
表1.
老年患者非心脏手术围手术期AKI发生率的研究汇总
Table 1 Summary of studies on the incidence of perioperative AKI in elderly patients undergoing non-cardiac surgery
| 引用文献 | 发表年份 | 研究类型 | 年龄/岁 | 手术类型 | 样本量 |
AKI诊断 标准 |
AKI 发生率/% |
住院 病死率 |
并发症的发病率 | 住院时间 |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Dodson等[7] | 2019 | 多中心,前瞻性队列研究 | ≥75 | PCI手术 | 2 212 |
KDIGO (肌酐标准) |
19.0 | + | N | N |
| Verwijmeren等[8] | 2021 | 多中心,前瞻性队列研究 | ≥70 | 心脏手术 | 539 |
KDIGO (肌酐标准) |
16.3 | + | N | N |
| Reents等[9] | 2014 |
多中心,RCT 研究 |
≥75 | 非体外循环冠状动脉搭桥术 | 1 612 |
AKIN (肌酐标准) |
40.0 | + | N | N |
| Zhu等[10] | 2020 | 单中心,回顾性观察研究 | ≥65 | 大关节置换术 | 1 006 |
KDIGO (肌酐标准) |
9.3 | N | N | N |
| Cho等[11] | 2019 | 单中心,回顾性队列研究 | ≥65 |
股骨颈骨折 手术 |
285 |
KDIGO (肌酐标准) |
23.5 | + | N | N |
| Hong等[12] | 2017 | 单中心,回顾性队列研究 | ≥65 | 髋部骨折手术 | 450 |
AKIN (肌酐标准) |
21.1 | + | + | + |
| Chao等[13] | 2013 | 单中心,前瞻性队列研究 | ≥65 | 大手术 | 4 240 |
AKIN (肌酐标准) |
23.1 | + | N | N |
+:两者存在正相关;N:文章未提及。RCT:随机对照试验;PCI:经皮冠状动脉介入治疗;AKI:急性肾损伤;KDIGO:改善全球肾脏病预后组织;AKIN:急性肾损伤网络。
2. 老年患者围手术期AKI的诊断
目前,AKI的诊断标准是基于改善肾脏疾病全球预后(Kidney Disease:Improving Global Outcomes,KDIGO)指南[15]。该指南将AKI定义为血清肌酐较基础值上升>0.3 mg/dL或者肌酐上升至超过基础值的1.5倍,或持续少尿超过6 h。然而,由于围手术期利尿剂的使用以及对尿量的监测程度有限,尿量可能不能可靠地提示患者是否发生了肾功能障碍[16]。因此,一般通过血清肌酐的变化来诊断AKI。但是,因肌酐还受到许多非肾因素的影响,故作为老年患者术后肾小球滤过率(glomerular filtration rate,GFR)的替代指标具有一定局限性[17]。血清肌酐浓度取决于肌肉组织中肌酐生成率、分布体积和通过肾的排泄率。随着年龄的增长,机体的肌肉质量下降,当肾因为急性损伤导致GFR突然下降后,老年人血清肌酐的上升速度和幅度会因肌肉质量的减少而变得反应滞后[4]。此外,对GFR持续下降(少尿和肌酐升高)的担忧通常会触发液体治疗,随后肌酐水平的下降可能代表由于液体治疗而改善的肾功能,也可能是因为血液中的肌酐被稀释,而实际上GFR并没有任何好转[17]。因此,采用血清肌酐的变化来诊断老年患者AKI容易导致漏诊和治疗的延迟,传统的血清肌酐可能不是诊断老年人AKI的理想生物标志物。指南和专家共识建议将通过验证的肾损伤生物标志物添加到AKI的诊断中,以便增强和完善传统的KDIGO分级,并提高早期诊断的准确性和敏感性[18-19]。
胱抑素C由有核细胞以恒定速率产生,不受肌肉量、年龄、感染及炎症等因素的影响,血清水平稳定,被认为是评估GFR的理想生物标志物。在老年人中,胱抑素C与GFR相关性比肌酐更强,是高龄患者肾功能不全的标志物[20]。然而,在临床上,胱抑素C尚未被广泛用于常规评估肾功能的急性或长期变化。一些潜在的肾细胞应激的新型尿液和血清生物标志物将有望帮助更早、更准确地诊断老年患者AKI。这些生物标志物似乎参与了AKI发生的分子细胞学机制,如细胞再生[肾损伤分子-1(kidney injury molecule 1,KIM-1)],铁稳态的调节[中性粒细胞明胶酶相关的脂蛋白(neutrophil gelatinase-associated lipocalin,NGAL)]和减轻脂质过氧化应激[肝脏脂肪酸结合蛋白(liver fatty acid binding protein,L-FABP)][17, 21]。然而,在一些急慢性疾病期间,这些生物标志物也可以从肾外组织中释放,这必然会影响它们作为AKI诊断工具的有效性和准确性。目前,没有任何一种生物标志物能够单独在早期诊断老年患者AKI方面取得优异的表现,也不确定AKI生物标志物在老年人和年轻人中的表现是否有所不同[22-23]。未来的研究可以将生物标志物的测量添加到临床风险预测模型中,以验证其实用性。
3. 老年患者围手术期AKI的易感机制
随着年龄增长,AKI的发病率显著增高。老年患者围手术期AKI的易感因素包括衰老的肾脏、共病状态和接受医疗干预的增加(图1)。
图1.
老年患者AKI的易感因素
Figure 1 Susceptibility factors of AKI in elderly patients
3.1. 衰老的肾脏
老年人尽管没有其他特定的肾病,但肾组织表现出一种生理、结构和功能的受累过程,被称为“肾脏衰老”[24-25]。这种衰老表现为肾脏质量减少、肾小球硬化、肾小管萎缩、间质纤维化、肾脏小动脉纤维内膜增生和玻璃样变等。这些与衰老相关的改变导致肾血流量(renal blood flow,RBF)和GFR减小,肾储备和自我修复调节能力下降,从而促进了损伤的发生,并降低了AKI发生后肾脏恢复结构和功能的自我更新能力[26]。肾脏的衰老导致老年患者更容易发生肾前性AKI,这是由于肾脏的血管自我调节能力发生了减退,逐渐倾向于血管收缩。起初,不同的血管舒张反应(如分泌一氧化氮、前列腺素等)会代偿掉这些改变,但是当肾脏受到额外的急性损伤时,与衰老相关的舒张因子分泌的减少可能会导致这些代偿失去平衡[26-27]。
AKI: Acute kidney injury; ACEI: Angiotensin converting enzyme inhibitor.
3.2. 老年患者的共病状态
随着年龄的增长,心血管疾病、糖尿病、慢性肾脏疾病(chronic kidney disease,CKD)及梗阻性尿路疾病等多种慢性疾病的发病率也随之增高,这些疾病都是AKI发生的危险因素[4]。高血压会对肾血管壁造成慢性损伤,导致血管壁增厚、管腔狭窄,并形成动脉粥样硬化斑块。此外,肾素-血管紧张素-醛固酮系统功能也会下降,导致RBF减少,这些改变使得肾脏在低灌注的情况下发生肾前性AKI的风险大大增加[28]。高血糖会导致肾脏微血管损伤,肾小球毛细血管闭塞,细胞损伤细胞外基质生成增加,导致肾功能储备降低[29]。CKD患者活性肾单位减少,肾脏储备降低,自我调节能力受损,围手术期抵抗急性应激源打击的能力减弱,发生损伤后也很难自我修复[17]。肾后或梗阻性AKI在普通人群中发生率较低(2%~4%),但在老年人群中更常见(10%)[4],通常是由于尿路结石、前列腺疾病、盆腔或腹膜后肿瘤侵犯或压迫导致的尿路梗阻。
3.3. 医疗干预的增加
老年患者容易共存多种合并症,这导致了其更有可能暴露于潜在的肾脏应激源和肾毒素的药物或侵入性操作中。过量和长期使用抗菌药物容易导致老年人肾功能衰竭,其中氨基糖苷类和两性霉素B是公认的老年人肾毒性药物,可引起急性肾小管坏死(acute tubular necrosis,ATN)[30]。非甾体抗炎药(non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs,NSAIDs)会抑制舒张血管的前列腺素的产生,增加肾血管收缩反应。血管紧张素转化酶抑制剂(angiotensin converting enzyme inhibitor,ACEI)或血管紧张素Ⅱ受体阻滞剂(angiotensin II receptor blocker,ARB)可能会导致与容量依赖的肾小球滤过率显著降低,损害肾脏自身调节,从而增加血流动力学介导的AKI的风险[31]。造影剂诱导的AKI是老年患者AKI最常见的原因之一,大量的造影剂用于诊断显像,其直接肾毒性肾小管损伤和血管收缩作用会导致肾髓质缺血[32]。随着越来越多的老年人因为合并疾病需要进行各种不同类型的外科手术,发生在围手术期的病理生理改变以及医源性不良事件均可对肾功能产生不良影响[26]。
4. 老年患者围手术期AKI的危险因素
AKI的危险因素是多方面的,有些因素在老年人群中可能更为普遍。近年来,一些研究[33-35]开始探究老年患者围手术期AKI的危险因素,发现高龄、虚弱、男性、低血容量、术中低血压、升压药物、肾脏疾病史、血清白蛋白、基线GFR水平、羟乙基淀粉、NSAIDs和呋塞米等都被证实与老年患者围手术期发生AKI的风险增加独立相关。
在临床危险因素的基础上,研究人员已经提出了构建围手术期AKI和肾脏替代治疗(renal replacement therapy,RRT)预测模型的工作。Kiers等[36]比较了8种AKI预测模型的风险评分,发现Cleveland评分在预测老年患者RRT方面优于其他7种模型,当评分≥3时,预测RRT的敏感性为83%,特异性为87%。一项研究[37]采用多标准决策(multi-criteria decision-making,MCDM)方法探讨老年患者发生AKI的围手术期相关危险因素,构建了一个整体的AKI风险评估模型。该模型将总体AKI风险水平与医生的临床经验评估相关联,并提供了预防AKI的指导以降低潜在的AKI风险。然而,这些模型还缺乏外部验证。
5. 老年患者围手术期AKI的防治
围手术期AKI对老年患者的健康构成严重威胁。目前,临床上对术后AKI的治疗仍然是对症治疗,缺乏被证明有效的策略可供广泛使用,这使得对AKI的预防变得至关重要。
5.1. 预防
5.1.1. 早期识别危险因素
预防老年患者AKI的策略通常包括早期识别和关注围手术期有AKI风险的高危患者;加强监测并优化其临床状况;减少或避免使用潜在的肾毒性药物,如NSAID、ACEI/ARB、利尿剂或氨基糖苷类药物的使用[17]。如果不可能完全避免,那么应该提前识别潜在的药物之间的相互作用,避免这些药物的组合使用导致肾毒性作用的放大,并在可能的情况下监测血液药物浓度,个体化地调整药物的剂量[26]。当诊断或侵入性操作需要使用造影剂时,避免盲目使用造影剂,而是建议使用造影剂替代物,必要时在大量输注晶体液或碳酸氢盐扩充血管容量(如无禁忌证)的情况下可少量使用等渗或非离子型低渗造影剂[38]。其他的措施还包括:术前纠正贫血,提高血清白蛋白水平,维持正常血糖,改善老年患者的“虚弱”等[34]。
5.1.2. 血流动力学干预
围手术期血流动力学的积极干预和维持机体循环的稳定状态可预防老年患者AKI发生。多项大样本回顾性研究和荟萃分析[39-42]结果表明:围手术期低血压是导致患者术后AKI的重要危险因素。然而,对于低血压目前还没有一个被广泛接受的定义,在麻醉和手术中支持关键器官灌注的最佳血压目标阈值尚无共识。研究[39]表明:低血压与术后AKI基于相对血压临界值的关联性并不比基于绝对血压临界值的关联性强,器官损伤发生在平均动脉压(mean artery pressure,MAP)小于60或65 mmHg(1 mmHg=0.133 kPa)时。整体器官损伤的风险仅在MAP低于65 mmHg时才开始迅速上升,建议将血压阈值作为术中质量指标之一[43]。就目前的情况而言,将MAP维持在65 mmHg以上对患者术后肾功能有保护作用[44]。
正如术中低血压没有一致的定义一样,术中高血压也没有普遍接受的定义。为数不多的几项研究探索了不同定义的术中高血压和AKI的关系。Charlson等[45]报告了术中MAP水平相较术前MAP升高超过20 mmHg,持续时间超过15 min与术后肾脏并发症增加相关。Reich等[46]证明术中收缩压大于160 mmHg会使包括肾损伤或死亡在内的不良结局的概率增加一倍以上。相反,最近一项针对76 042名非心脏手术的成年患者的回顾性研究[47]的结果表明,术中SBP在120~200 mmHg与AKI之间并不存在临床意义的关联。考虑到已发表证据的稀缺性和异质性,开始处理的血压上限仍有待确定。现有数据表明术中高血压与术后AKI的相关性不如低血压明确,术中血压控制应根据基础器官功能和手术情况进行个体化血压管理[43]。
上述回顾性和观察性研究的结果仍无法得出二者之间确切的因果关联。目前只有少数几项随机对照试验[48-51]比较了几种非心脏手术中目标血压控制方案与术后AKI的关系(表2)。这些随机对照试验共同证明:与术中较低的目标血压相比,较高的目标血压不会导致接受非心脏手术的患者术后AKI的风险增加,而当术中血压维持在接近患者基础血压的水平时,可能会改善患者的肾功能。
表2.
非心脏手术中不同目标血压控制方案对术后急性肾损伤的影响的随机对照试验
Table 2 Randomized controlled trials of the effects of different target blood pressure control regimens on postoperative acute kidney injury in non-cardiac surgery
| 作者 | 发表年份 | 手术类型 | 样本量 | 干预措施 | 对照措施 | 结果 | 研究局限 |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Futeir等[48] | 2017 | 腹部手术的高危患者 | 298 | SBP维持在基础血压的90%~110% |
维持SBP> 80 mmHg 或>60%的基线血压 |
显著降低术后AKI的发生风险(32.7% vs 49%,调整后的RR:0.7,95% CI 0.53~0.92,P=0.01) |
对照组的最低SBP干预阈值为80 mmHg,然而大多数麻醉医师在SBP下降到80 mmHg之前就会进行 干预 |
| Wanner等[49] | 2021 | 大型非心脏手术的有心血管风险的成年患者 | 458 |
目标MAP≥ 75 mmHg |
目标MAP≥60 mmHg |
2组的短期或长期心 血管结果(包括AKI的发生率)没有显著差异 |
只使用绝对血压值作为治疗目标,这对于有些患者来说很可能是不够的 |
| Wu等[50] | 2017 | 胃肠道大手术的老年慢性高血压患者 | 678 | 2级:目标MAP(80~95 mmHg)或3级:目标MAP(96~110 mmHg) | 1级:目标MAP(65~79 mmHg) |
将术中MAP控制在 80~95 mmHg可减少 术后AKI的发生 |
不能根据术前基线血压对患者进行分配,一些患者被随机分配到低MAP组,这可能不符合预先确定的最佳血压水平 |
| Guo等[51] | 2020 | 胃肠肿瘤手术的老年患者 | 180 | 持续输注甲氧明2 μg/(kg·min) |
持续输注 生理盐水 |
通过升高血压降低了术后AKI的发生率(7.5% vs 18.3%, P<0.05) |
AKI的诊断标准包括尿量,但没有进行泌尿系彩色超声波检查筛除可能存在的前列腺增生导致的尿路梗阻,这可能会导致AKI的误诊 |
1 mmHg=0.133 kPa。SBP:收缩压;MAP:平均动脉压;RR:相对危险度;AKI:急性肾损伤。
针对术后风险增加的老年患者,采用更加严格的术中血压控制方案可以减少术后重要脏器功能障碍[18]。目前,对于非心脏手术老年患者建议术中目标血压控制在术前基础血压的90%~110%,同时维持MAP在65~95 mmHg。对于基础血压较高(收缩压≥130 mmHg或舒张压≥80 mmHg)的老年患者,目标血压控制在基础血压的80%~110%,且维持收缩压<160 mmHg。而对于基础血压较低(收缩压<90 mmHg或舒张压<50 mmHg)的老年患者,目标血压控制在基础血压的100%~120%,同时保持MAP>60 mmHg。个体化的血压管理策略和血管活性药物的合理应用可能是预防和治疗低血压的关键,这对降低老年患者围手术期AKI的发生率具有重要的临床意义[18, 52-54]。
5.1.3. 容量管理和注意尿量变化
预防老年患者AKI的策略还包括及时改善机体容量状态、维持容量平衡状态和注意尿量变化。围手术期液体管理一直存在“干湿之争”。限制性补液方案与术后并发症减少、住院时间更短相关[55],但也有导致肾低灌注的风险。研究[56-57]表明与开放性补液方案相,限制性补液方案与较高的AKI发生率相关。传统观念认为液体扩容可以改善血流动力学和肾灌注,从而增加尿量,也许会降低AKI的发生风险。但是围手术期补液过量会导致液体超负荷和静脉充血,肾内压力升高而引起肾水肿,已经被认为是AKI发生的危险因素[56]。目标导向液体治疗(goal-directed fluid therapy,GDFT)是一种个体化液体治疗策略,目前被推荐用于老年患者术中容量管理。通过仪器监测患者术中的心脏指数(cardiac index,CI)、每搏输出量(stroke volume,SV)和每搏变异率(stroke volume variation,SVV)等血流动力学指标,来指导围手术期输液及血管活性药物治疗,可有效减少并发症(如AKI、肺水肿、胃肠道水肿、伤口感染等)和改善预后[58]。但也有研究[59]提出了质疑:认为GDFT与其他补液方案相比,并不能明显预防患者AKI的发生。未来还需要更多大型的随机对照试验去验证,以确定最佳的围手术期液体管理策略。
尿量是反映器官灌注情况的重要指标,少尿通常被认为是由于血管内容量不足或持续的全身低灌注所致。这2种情况都被认为会导致肾灌注减少,并增加AKI的风险[60]。本课题组的一项荟萃分析研究[61]纳入了9项回顾性研究的18 473名患者的数据资料,结果表明术中少尿与术后AKI的风险增加相关。然而,少尿并不应该被单独视为触发特定的血流动力学干预的标志(例如额外的静脉输液)。在这种情况下,应该关注液体输注和丢失、低血容量或液体超负荷迹象、全身血流动力学、液体反应性和少尿持续时间等信息,以解释和确定少尿的潜在来源[60-61]。这样做可能会改善患者容量状况,这对预防AKI非常重要[62]。
5.1.4. 远程缺血预处理
预防老年患者AKI的策略还包括提前进行远隔缺血预处理(remote ischemic preconditioning,RIPC)。RIPC是指对远隔器官或组织进行多次短暂的轻度缺血和再灌注,从而防止靶器官随后遭受致命性的缺血再灌注损伤。由于肾具有高代谢率和复杂的血管解剖结构,因此对缺血再灌注损伤特别敏感。RIPC可能成为一种新的非药物预防策略,有助于减少AKI的发生率[63]。RIPC的操作方法是将放置在上臂的压力袖带充气到至少高于收缩压50 mmHg持续5 min来诱导缺血,然后放气,恢复再灌注5 min,如此进行3个循环。RIPC减轻围手术期AKI的可能机制是通过体液和神经自主途径发挥肾保护作用,也可发生β2肾上腺素能受体介导的肾保护作用[64]。一些研究[63, 65]表明远隔缺血预处理显著降低AKI的发生率和减少肾替代治疗,然而也有研究[66]显示出相反的结果。
RIPC操作简单,无伤害,并且不会增加额外的医疗费用。虽然目前的研究结果仍存在相互矛盾的情况,但RIPC仍被认为是一种可行的预防老年患者围手术期AKI的措施。
5.1.5. 使用肾血管扩张剂
理想的肾血管扩张剂应该能够增加GFR和RBF,而不会导致肾组织灌注减少和缺血缺氧。研究[67]表明低剂量的多巴胺可以增加肾低灌注期对缺血的耐受性,从而在一定程度上减轻肾损伤。但是,基于现有研究的结论,为预防AKI而对患者常规给予多巴胺是不合理的[68-69]。左西孟旦是一种钙增敏剂,具有正性肌力和扩张血管的作用。在临床上,左西孟旦作为强心剂常被用于低心输出量心力衰竭患者,因为它可以增强心肌收缩力,同时引起全身血管扩张,降低心脏的前负荷和后负荷[70]。在肾内毒素缺血再灌注的动物模型中,左西孟旦已被证实可以提供直接的肾保护作用[71]。多项临床研究的结果均支持左西孟旦可以改善患者的肾功能[72-73]。一项荟萃分析[74]纳入了27项随机对照试验的3 198名患者的数据资料,结果表明在接受心脏手术的患者围手术期给予左西孟旦可以降低术后AKI的发生率。
5.2. 治疗
一旦老年患者确诊AKI,除了建议用于一般人群的治疗策略外,目前还没有特别针对老年患者的治疗策略。治疗策略的基础主要是维持肾血流、避免肾进一步损伤以及肾替代治疗。首先,必须继续仔细评估容量状态,及时纠正液体不足是预防AKI进一步加重的关键。其次,必须密切监测电解质和酸碱平衡状态,可酌情限制钾、磷和镁的摄入,使用磷结合剂治疗高磷血症,输注碳酸氢钠纠正明显的酸中毒(pH值<7.2)。其次,坚持营养支持也非常重要,因为营养状况是影响老年AKI患者预后的重要预测因素[34]。
除前文讨论的支持性治疗措施外,重度AKI患者可能需要RRT。关于老年AKI患者开始透析的决定必须个体化,应考虑到这些患者透析不耐受的高风险、具体的临床情况、患者和家属的意愿、肾功能恢复的机会和生存的概率。老年AKI患者受心血管储备功能下降、自主神经功能障碍、出血并发症发生率增高等自身因素的影响,接受RRT耐受性较差,在透析期间更容易发生血流动力学不良反应,如低血压、高血压和心律失常[26]。但是,老年人中RRT的适应证与年轻人中没有区别,年龄不应成为启动肾外治疗的禁忌证。一项研究[75]对接受RRT治疗的老年和年轻AKI患者的生存差异进行比较,结果未发现老年因素对住院生存和病死率有任何影响。
在老年患者中,采用连续肾替代治疗(continuous renal replacement therapy,CRRT)可能比间歇性RRT对肾功能结局更有益。病程早期应用CRRT可降低病死率并获得更好的预后[76]。这可能是因为CRRT在老年人中具有更稳定的血流动力学特征和更低的轻度失衡综合征风险[15, 17]。
6. 结语与展望
老年人群的AKI发病率增长最快,但其表型相较年轻人群的AKI并无明显不同。未来的研究应该重点关注以下方面,以期提高老年患者围手术期肾保护的效果。首先,探索将生物标志物的测量添加到老年患者AKI的诊断中,这将有望早期诊断和预防AKI。其次,评估潜在的AKI预防策略,包括进一步寻找围手术期AKI的危险因素,确定正确的血流动力学干预界点和最佳的干预措施,以及制订最佳的容量管理方案等。探究重度AKI患者启动肾替代治疗的最佳时间、方式和持续时间的问题。最后,围手术期肾保护策略的未来发展必须依赖于开发更好的监测肾灌注和氧合的方法,从而指导干预的时机、强度、类型和持续时间。
综上,目前关于老年患者非心脏手术围手术期AKI的研究内容主要包括:流行病学、临床诊断、易感因素、危险因素、预防与治疗等(图2)。老年患者围手术期AKI的发病率更高,这与老年人肾的衰老、共病状态和医疗干预的增加有关。新型AKI生物标志物的出现和老年患者AKI检测手段的改进有助于提高AKI诊断的及时性和敏感性。在围手术期AKI危险因素基础上构建的预测模型有助于加强对高龄AKI患者的监测和早期预防,从而改善患者的预后。预防老年患者AKI的主要措施包括以下方面:早期识别高危患者、加强围手术期血流动力学干预、改善机体容量状态并避免少尿、进行远程缺血预处理、使用肾血管扩张剂等。老年患者确诊AKI后的支持治疗关注于维持肾血流、避免肾进一步损伤以及肾替代治疗,重度AKI患者应尽早开始接受RRT治疗,并在模式上选择CRRT。老年人AKI的发病率增长最快,预后更差,未来关于预防和治疗AKI的大样本、多中心、随机对照试验可以在老年人群中进行。
图2.
老年患者非心脏手术围手术期AKI研究进展
Figure 2 Progress in perioperative AKI studies in elderly patients undergoing non-cardiac surgery AKI: Acute kidney injury; CRRT: Continuous renal replacement therapy.
基金资助
国家自然科学基金(82171236,81974172);湖南省重点研发计划(2021SK2018);国家老年疾病临床研究中心项目(2020LNJJ08)。
This work was supported by the National Natural Science Foundation (82171236, 81974172), Key Research and Development Program of Hunan Province (2021SK2018), and the Program of National Clinical Research Center for Geriatric Disorders (2020LNJJ08), China.
利益冲突声明
作者声称无任何利益冲突。
作者贡献
庞兆华 论文构思、撰写与修改;邹望远 论文构思、指导及修改。所有作者阅读并同意最终的文本。
原文网址
http://xbyxb.csu.edu.cn/xbwk/fileup/PDF/202305760.pdf
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