Progress in silk and silk fiber-inspired polymeric nanomaterials for drug delivery

Abstract

The fields of drug and gene delivery have been revolutionized by the discovery and characterization of polymer-based materials. Polymeric nanomaterials have emerged as a strategy for targeted delivery because of features such as their impressive biocompatibility and improved availability. Use of naturally derived polymers in these nanomaterials is advantageous due to their biodegradability and bioresorption. Natural biopolymer-based particles composed of silk fibroins and other silk fiber-inspired proteins have been the focus of research in drug delivery systems due to their simple synthesis, tunable characteristics, and ability to respond to stimuli. Several silk and silk-inspired polymers contain a high proportion of reactive side groups, allowing for functionalization and addition of targeting moieties. In this review, we discuss the main classes of silk and silk-inspired polymers that are being used in the creation of nanomaterials. We also focus on the fabrication techniques used in generating a tunable design space of silk-based polymeric nanomaterials and detail how that translates into use for drug delivery to several distinct microenvironments.

Introduction

The efficacy of treatment for numerous diseases and conditions including, but not limited to, cancers, autoimmune disorders, inflammation, and infection, is limited by how therapeutic agents and drugs are delivered. Systemically administered drugs suffer from low water solubility, rapid clearance, and can cause a variety of off-target side effects (1). Administering drugs via alternative routes is an area of interest, but overcoming the body’s natural barrier systems is a significant challenge. To address the limitations associated with systemic delivery, research focused on advanced drug delivery systems (DDS) has been a major area of interest (2). Nanomaterial-based DDS, such as nanoparticles, liposomes, and dendrimers, have been shown to enhance the bioavailability of various therapeutics (3, 4). A major class of nanomaterial DDS are polymeric nanomaterials engineered to include features such as targeting moieties (5). Using natural biopolymers for the creation of these DDS is further advantageous due to their impressive biocompatibility and biodegradability (6). The main classes of natural biopolymers used for the synthesis of nanoparticle-based systems are polysaccharides and proteins.

Silk fibroins and other silk fiber-inspired proteins have been shown to be biocompatible and easily digested by immune cells and proteolytic enzymes into products that can re-enter native metabolic processes on a tunable timeline (7, 8). Apart from their biocompatibility and tunable biodegradation, silk proteins are also advantageous polymers for the engineering of DDS due to the myriad of methods to induce increases in crystalline content. This translates into numerous methods for engineering nanomaterials of various sizes, depending on the end state application, that don’t require the use of harsh solvents (9). Increased crystalline content also limits the tendency for burst release behavior (9, 10). The main silk proteins that have been explored for use in a variety of nanoparticle DDS are silk fibroins from the Bombyx mori silkworm. Bombyx mori silk fibroin is the most well-characterized silk protein source and has a variety of reactive amino acids to allow for functionalization (11–15). Other silk proteins, including Bombyx mori sericin, genetically engineered silk fibroin proteins, silk fibers from other Antheraea species, and bioengineered spider fibroin silks (12), are being explored due to their enhanced ability for functionalization, potential for a wider range of material and mechanical properties, and increased homogeneity of the starting polymer. In this review, we discuss the primary structure of these silk proteins and relate the structure to fabrication strategies for nanomaterials (Figure 1). We also highlight progress in the in vitro and in vivo evaluations of silk-based DDS.

Figure 1:

Common methods for silk biopolymer fabrication and functionalization.

Fabrication and evaluation of nanomaterial DDS based on silk proteins and silk fiber-inspired polymers

Bombyx mori fibroin

Bombyx mori silk is composed of two main protein groups, fibroin and sericin. Two fibroin fibers are surrounded by a sericin coating. When fibroin and sericin are present together, there is decreased biocompatibility (16). Sericin is water soluble, allowing for fibroin to be readily extracted (17). Historically, sericin has been discarded as waste, but we discuss the potential for sericin nanomaterials in a later section.

Fibroin from Bombyx mori is biocompatible and the focus of biomedical research for applications including nanomaterials and both local and systemic DDS. Fibroin consists of heavy (^~325 kDa) and light (^~26 kDa) chains linked with a disulfide bond (18). The light chain is elastic, hydrophilic, and characterized by nonrepeating sequences of amino acids. The heavy chain comprises highly hydrophobic and crystalline motifs (GAGAGS or GAGAGX, X=V or Y) separated by amorphous regions containing polar and charged amino acids (18). The hydrophobic motifs can form layers of beta-sheet structures, thereby altering the crystallinity and mechanical properties of fibroin-based materials. The level of crystallinity varies with the material fabrication methods and can be further increased using post-processing techniques such as water annealing (7, 17, 19). Fibroin nanoparticles have also been shown to have stimuli-responsive behavior, with increased degradation and drug release occurring as a function of stimuli such as pH and the presence of reactive oxygen species, making them advantageous for delivery of therapies like chemotherapeutics (20–22).

To form nanomaterials with silk fibroin, researchers have developed an array of physical and chemical methods to induce the hydrophobic collapse of the hydrophobic motifs and encourage the formation of water insoluble nanoparticles (13–15, 23, 24). Recent studies have utilized techniques such as spray drying (25), organic solvent desolvation (21, 26, 27), salting out (28), and microfluidic devices (29–33) (Table 1). Control of particle size and material properties to enhance cell material interaction (34) and to optimize non-systemic delivery routes has been established (35–38).

Table 1:

Summary of current advances in silk and silk fiber-inspired nanomaterials for drug and gene delivery

Polymer Source	Fabrication Strategy	Particle Size	Application	In vitro and/or in vivo models	Refs.
B. mori fibroin	Chemical crosslinking	50–100 nm	Molecular imprinting	In vitro: 3T3 cytotoxicity	(39)
	Nanoprecipitation	200–220 nm	pH responsive Silk-ZIF-8 core-shell nanospheres, Doxorubicin delivery	In vitro: MCF-7 cytotoxicity, uptake and localization In vivo: subcutaneous injection in BALB/c nude mice safety evaluation MCF-7 tumor baring mice-therapeutic anti-tumor effect	(20)
	Desolvation	175–225 nm	NAC nasal delivery	In vitro: TEER assays and tight junction analysis in human nasal RPMI 2650 In vivo: Sprague Dawley IVIS study	(35)
	Desolvation	110 nm	Celecoxib and curcumin delivery for osteoarthritis	In vitro: isolated articular chondrocyte inflammation model	(85)
	Desolvation	200–300 nm	cRGD functionalized silk for targeted delivery of patchouli alcohol	In vitro: anti-inflammation assays in RAW 264.7 macrophages, Intestinal barrier protection evaluation in Caco-2 cells In vivo: biodistribution and therapeutic outcomes evaluation in mice	(42)
	Spray drying	~165–260 nm	Rosmarinic acid delivery to cancer cells	In vitro: cellular uptake, and cytotoxicity assays	(25)
	Desolvation	300–400 nm	NO delivery	In vitro: viability assays with 3T3 cells, antibacterial effect on viability with E. coli and MRSA	(86)
	Desolvation	100–180 nm	Silk particles as adjuvants in subunit multi epitope vaccine for UTI	In vitro: cytotoxicity in L929 cells In vivo: immunization assay in BALB/c mice	(27)
	Desolvation	~160–190 nm	Targeted delivery of ferulic acid by neutrophil coating of silk particles for pancreatitis	In vivo: IV injection in male Wistar rats. Biodistribution and therapeutic effect	(40)
	*ionic gelation, green synthesis Chemical crosslinking *processing steps not involving silk	~8 nm, ~1 μm	Chitosan-gold nanoparticles coated in functionalized silk fibroin for targeted delivery of doxorubicin	In vitro: HeLa cell viability and live cell imaging	(41)
	Emulsion polymerization	38–220 nm	PEGylated fibroin nanoparticles for 5-FU delivery in treatment of colorectal cancer	In vitro: HT-29 cytotoxicity assays	(87)
	Semi-batch processing using micromixing and microfluidics-desolvation	109–149 nm	Volumetric scale up of silk particles to enhance the potential for translation	---	(33)
	Desolvation and pH induced self-assembly	106–165 nm	Respiratory delivery of rifampicin for treatment of mycobacterial disease	In vitro: inflammatory response of infected RAW 264.7 macrophages	(37)
	Desolvation	186 nm	Delivery of tamoxifen citrate for treatment in breast cancer	In vitro: cytotoxicity and uptake in MCF-10A (noncancerous), MCF-7 and MDA-MB-231 (cancerous) lines	(88)
	Self-assembly	120–170 nm	Delivery of gene therapies for treatments of lung cancer by chemically modified, cationized silk fibroin carriers	In vitro: transfection and viability analysis in A549 and WI-38 cells	(89)
	Desolvation	69 nm	Delivery of antioxidant and imaging agents (theragnostic)	In vitro: cytotoxicity in L132 and A549 cells	(47)
	Desolvation and chemical crosslinking	300–500 nm	Delivery of paclitaxel for colon cancer treatment	In vitro: cytotoxicity and uptake in Caco-2 and MCF-7 cells.	(43)
	Desolvation	92–200 nm	Composite silk fibroin/alginate nanoparticles in PNIPAM hydrogel for pH sensitive delivery of vancomycin for treatment of infection in chronic burns	In vitro: biocompatibility, cell migration analysis with L929 cells In vivo: infected burn model in male Wistar albino rats	(21)
	Salting out	107–436 nm	Magnetic silk+polyethyleneimine core shell for targeted delivery of gene therapies in treatment of breast cancer	In vitro: cytotoxicity and uptake analysis in MDA-MB-231 or HDF cells	(28)
	*thin film hydration Desolvation *processing steps not involving silk	136–191 nm	Long-term delivery of cancer therapies (doxorubicin)	In vitro: cytotoxicity in L929, MDA-MB-231 and MCF-7 cells	(90)
	Desolvation	36–48 nm	Transdermal deliveries of therapies	In vivo: transdermal distribution study in male ICR mice	(36)
	Microfluidic assisted desolvation	129–232 nm	Targeted delivery by G3 functionalized particles of cancer therapy ASC-J9	In vitro: cytotoxicity, uptake, and tumor spheroid penetration in HCT-116 and DF cells	(32)
	Co-flow microfluidic device assisted desolvation	~6 μm	Doxorubicin delivery to tumor microenvironment	In vitro: cytotoxicity, inflammation response, uptake in KELLY and THP-1 cells	(30)
	Water/oil emulsion	20–140 μm	Injectable microspheres analysis for future delivery in treatment of osteoarthritis	In vitro: cytocompatibility analysis with rat bone MSCs In vivo: subcutaneous injections in Sprague Dawley rats for biocompatibility analysis, ACL transection model in Sprague Dawley rats	(91)
	Concentration followed by incubation to induce self-assembly	100 nm-1 μm	Delivery of cancer therapies (doxorubicin)	In vitro: uptake, retention, cytotoxicity analysis in HUVEC and MCF-7 cells. Tumor spheroid penetration (MCF-7)	(34)
	Desolvation	179 nm	Delivery of biotherapeutics to the retina	In vitro: cytotoxicity, uptake, retention analysis in ARPE-19 cells In vivo: biodistribution and safety of intravitreal injection in white New Zealand rabbits	(38)
	Desolvation and freezing induced self-assembly	330–379 nm	Delivery of gene therapies	In vitro: cytotoxicity, uptake, immunostimulation in RAW 264.7	(92)
	Desolvation	53–73 nm	MnO2 capped silk fibroin particles for photodynamic therapy for cancer	In vitro: viability in L929 and HUVEC cells. Cytotoxicity and uptake in 4T1 cells. In vivo: evaluation of biodistribution, pharmacokinetics, and antitumor effects in a 3T1 tumor model in BALB/c mice	(45)
	Desolvation	120 nm	Indocyanine green loaded silk particles for photo-thermal treatment of glioma	In vitro: cytotoxicity and uptake in RAW 264.7 and C6 cells. Photo-thermal effect with C6 cells. In vivo: biodistribution, pharmacokinetics, and antitumor effects in C6 tumor model in BALB/c mice	(46)
B. mori sericin	Self-assembly in water	35–370 nm	Sericin-PLA are chemically conjugated to form an amphiphilic material for doxorubicin delivery	In vitro: cytotoxicity and uptake in HepG2 cells	(53)
	Self-assembly in DMSO with Pluronic F-127	137–201 nm	Slow release of antioxidant polyphenols for support of regeneration by MSCs	In vitro: cytocompatibility and proliferation assays in human adipose derived MSCs	(52)
	Chemical crosslinking followed by desolvation	225–248 nm	Evaluating crocetin as novel crosslinker for bioactive sericin particles for nasal delivery and limiting oxidative stress	In vitro: metabolic activity assay in Caco-2 cells	(48)
	Nanoprecipitation	100–300 nm	Doxorubicin delivery in treatment of breast cancer	In vitro: cytotoxicity, cytoskeletal changes, and comet assays in MCF-7 cells	(54)
	Desolvation	123–147 nm	pH responsive, targeted delivery of lactoferrin for treatment of ulcerative colitis	In vitro: cytotoxicity, cellular uptake, and anti-inflammatory activity in RAW 264.7 cells In vivo: ulcerative colitis model in BALB/c mice	(49)
Non-B. mori native silks	Desolvation and radiolysis	180–250 nm	Characterization of secondary structure of Antheraea assamensis fibroin nanoparticles for applications in controlled release	---	(56)
	Desolvation	185 nm	Release of doxorubicin from Antheraea assamensis fibroin nanoparticles for cancer treatment	In vitro: biocompatibility in L929 cells. Cytotoxicity in MDA-MB-231 cells	(57)
	Desolvation	400–800 nm	Stimuli responsive, PEG-Antheraea pernyi silk particles for gene therapy in cancer	In vitro: transfection and cytotoxicity assays in HT1080 and HEK293 cells	(58)
	Self-assembly	109–155 nm	Chitosan and Antheraea mylitta silk-coated silver nanoparticles for transdermal cancer therapy delivery	In vitro: cytotoxicity, comet, morphology assays in A431 and HaCaT cells In vivo: immune response in BALB/c mice	(59)
Recombinant silks	Salting out	~400 nm	Targeted delivery of doxorubicin for cancer in particle inspired by Nephila clavipes spider	In vivo: biodistribution and safety in BALB/cAnNCrl mice	(79)
	Salting out	~400 nm	Targeted delivery of doxorubicin for cancer in particle inspired by Nephila clavipes spider	In vitro: cytotoxicity, and uptake in D2F2E2/LUC and D2F2/LUC cells In vivo-models for orthotopic and metastatic breast cancer in BALB/cAnNCrl mice	(78)
	Salting out	~1 μm	Stimuli responsive Araneus diadematus inspired particle for cancer therapy delivery	In vitro: cytotoxicity and uptake in HeLa cells	(75)
	Nanoprecipitation	184 nm	Stimuli responsive Nephila clavipes inspired particles for antibiotic delivery	In vitro: infection responsive activity in Staphylococcus aureus and Staphylococcus epidermidis In vivo: septic arthritis model in Sprague Dawley rats	(93)
	Salting out	~1 μm	Araneus diadematus inspired particles for directing corona formation, applications in systemic delivery	Ex vivo: incubation in human whole blood for corona analysis	(74)

Recently, researchers have combined functionalization techniques with the use of composite materials to generate the next generation of silk-based nanomaterials that can function as targeted delivery systems (26, 28, 39–44) and as systems for both therapy and diagnostics (45–47). Pham et al. developed a fibroin nanoparticle system for delivery of therapeutics in the treatment of colon cancer (43). They encapsulated paclitaxel in fibroin particles (300–500 nm) formed by organic solvent desolvation and EDC crosslinking. They found their formulations were effective in colon and breast cell cancer lines, but interestingly observed that when the formulation was used in colon cancer lines, cytotoxic efficiency increased 10-fold relative to free drug (43). Du et al. also explored targeting sites in the colon for ulcerative colitis (42). They formed nanoparticles by desolvation and then surface functionalized them with cRGD. Safety and efficacy were evaluated in vitro and in vivo and it was found that the cRGD functionalized particles specifically interacted with integrin αv inflammation sites in the colon and contributed to an improved therapeutic outcome (42). Horo et al. developed a composite material for targeted delivery of antitumor agents (41). They developed chitosan-stabilized gold nanoparticles (^~8 nm) loaded with doxorubicin and coated with fibroin conjugated with folic acid and fluorescein to promote the targeting of tumor cells. The silk coating contributed to an improved drug release profile and increased uptake and cytotoxicity in HeLa cultures. They also modified this formulation into larger particles (^~1000 μm) using ionic gelation to address the potential for oral delivery (41). Song et al. also explored anti-cancer composite silk nanomaterials for targeted delivery for gene therapies (28). They utilized a salting out technique to fabricate magnetic silk + polyethyleneimine core shell nanoparticles with tunable size (^~100–500 nm). They demonstrated enhanced delivery of therapeutic antisense oligodeoxynucleotides by use of magnetofection in MDA-MB-231 breast cancer cells (28). Silk-based nanomaterial DDS continue to be made of primarily Bombyx mori fibroin polymers, but recently researchers have also begun investigating other silk fiber biopolymers as well as alternative sources for silk fibroin biopolymers that have additional unique properties for use in biomedical applications.

Bombyx mori sericin

As mentioned previously, sericin proteins from Bombyx mori cocoons have traditionally been discarded as a waste product. However, recent work has highlighted how, when purified, sericin proteins are non-cytotoxic, have a high potential for reactive modification, and can facilitate cell-material interaction. A major limitation of sericin proteins is that they are highly water soluble, meaning the majority of nanomaterials made with sericin must be composite materials. Sericins from Bombyx mori are not as well characterized as their fibroin counterpart, but it has been shown that they are globular proteins in nature ranging from 20–310 kDa and mainly consist of reactive residues like serine and aspartic acid. This means sericin materials often have increased presence of random coil structures; however, crystallinity can still be induced in the material synthesis process by techniques such as desolvation. Recent studies utilizing sericin-based DDS have focused on applications including nasal delivery (48), pH responsive materials (49), antibacterial activity (50, 51), cell therapy (52), and cancer therapies (53–55) (Table 1).

To assemble sericin-based nanoparticles, researchers often have taken a two-step approach. First, taking advantage of the reactiveness of sericin, they chemically crosslink or modify the polymer. This is typically followed by a self-assembly or desolvation step. Boonpavanitchakul et al. conjugated a hydrophobic polymer, PLA, to sericin, forming an amphiphilic material (53). They were then able to self-assemble the PLA-silk sericin polymers into nanomaterials of tunable size (~36–370 nm) depending on the pH and inclusion of additional crosslinkers, all taking place in aqueous conditions. They further demonstrated the potential of this system as a cancer therapy by showing effective loading of doxorubicin, enhanced release under acidic conditions, and effectiveness in in vitro liver cancer cell models (53). Perteghella et al. stabilized sericin by crosslinking with crocetin and formed ^~225 nm nanoparticles by desolvation in acetone (48). Perteghella and colleagues are working toward optimizing these particles for nose-to-brain delivery and demonstrated cytocompatibility and protection from oxidative stress in Caco-2 epithelial cells (48). Xu et al. took a novel approach and optimized a transgenic silkworm to produce silk that is sericin-rich and has recombinant lactoferrin expressed in the sericin layer for treatment of ulcerative colitis (49). They were then able to synthesize ^~125 nm negatively charged sericin-lactoferrin nanospheres by acetone desolvation. The effectiveness of the system was evaluated by oral delivery in an ulcerative colitis mouse model. They demonstrated improved uptake efficiency (attributed to charge interactions) and inhibition of the NF-κβ inflammatory pathway associated with acute colitis (49). Overall, the recent progress in sericin DDS highlight the advantages of the increased bioactivity and reactivity of the protein. Researchers have also begun to evaluate the potential of silk from different species for this same purpose.

Non-Bombyx mori native silk fibers

While most silk-based healthcare materials have traditionally been reverse engineered from Bombyx mori silk fibers, most insects in the Lepidopteran order produce silk fibers for a variety of applications (cocoon/web formation, egg coating, etc.). Recent studies have found that some of these fibers expand the design space for silk-based materials by having more reactive residues and different mechanical properties. Recently, silk fibroin from Antheraea assamensis (56, 57), Antheraea pernyi (58), and sericin from Antheraea mylitta (59) have all been used in the development of nanoparticle DDS (Table 1).

Asapur et al. characterized the secondary structure of nanoparticles synthesized from Antheraea assamensis fibroin by desolvation and radiolysis methods (56). The fibroin from Antheraea assamensis is known for its ability to absorb high levels of UV radiation and its impressive tensile strength Asapur et al. characterized the secondary structure of nanoparticles synthesized from Antheraea assamensis fibroin by desolvation and radiolysis methods (56). The fibroin from Antheraea assamensis is known for its ability to absorb high levels of UV radiation and its impressive tensile strength (60). Like Bombyx mori fibroin, alanine-rich repeating motifs give this biopolymer the potential to form nanomaterials with high levels of β sheet crystallinity (61). Asapur et al found that the radiolysis method led to the formation of smaller ^~180 nm particles compared to ^~250 nm particles made with desolvation. Both particle types also had >30% crystalline content, showing potential for controlled release (56). Baruah et al. evaluated the release of doxorubicin from Antheraea assamensis fibroin particles made by desolvation and found efficient drug loading, and that the DDS increased the effectiveness relative to free doxorubicin of the cytotoxic effect on MDA-MB-231 cancer cells (57). Asapur et al found that the radiolysis method led to the formation of smaller ^~180 nm particles compared to ^~250 nm particles made with desolvation. Both particle types also had >30% crystalline content, showing potential for controlled release (56). Baruah et al. evaluated the release of doxorubicin from Antheraea assamensis fibroin particles made by desolvation and found efficient drug loading, and that the DDS increased the effectiveness relative to free doxorubicin of the cytotoxic effect on MDA-MB-231 cancer cells (57).

Liu et al. took advantage of the abundant reactive sites present in silk fibroin from Antheraea pernyi in the creation of their stimuli responsive DDS (58). They prepared particles from cationized Antheraea pernyi fibroin for gene delivery to cancer cells by desolvation in DMSO. Using the reactive capabilities of this fibroin, they grafted on an MMP-2 cleavable PEG to the particles surface. This allowed for limiting opsonization without sacrificing transfection when MMP-2 (highly expressed in the tumor microenvironment) cleaves the PEG in vitro. They demonstrated decreased protein adhesion and successful transfection to HEK293 cells (58). In addition to leveraging the biodiversity of silk fiber producing species to design novel polymeric nanomaterials for DDS, researchers have also recently been producing recombinant proteins inspired by silk fibers to create targeted DDS.

Silk fiber-inspired recombinant polymers

As an alternative to use of purified silk fibroin proteins, researchers have also designed recombinant silk proteins inspired by nature to make polymeric nanomaterials for drug and therapeutic delivery. One approach is to use bacteria, such as E. coli, to express silk-like peptides either alone or in combination with other useful protein sequences (62–64). Another approach utilizes whole organism genetic modification to express engineered silk fibroins or other related therapeutic agents (e.g., sericins) (49, 65–71).

Much of the focus of genetic engineering of silk proteins is based on the silk fibroins produced by spiders. This is because, unlike Lepidopteran species, spiders’ cannibalistic and territorial tendencies make it so spiders cannot be farmed, meaning their fibers cannot be naturally sourced for biomedical research. Researchers have taken inspiration from the silk of Nephila clavipes and Araneus diadematus to design recombinant spider proteins. Silk produced from spiders (spidroin proteins) are ^~300 kDa and composed of a highly repetitive core, mainly consisting of alanine, glycine, and proline residues, flanked by small, nonrepetitive terminal domains, which are highly conserved across spider species (72). The development, expression, and purification of spider-inspired fibroin proteins (spidroin proteins) has been recently reviewed (12, 73). For the purposes of this review, we focus on the nanoparticle fabrication techniques recently used in the progress toward targeted DDS, and recent publications are summarized in Table 1.

The Scheibel group designed nanoparticle systems based on Araneus diadematus with the goal of directing corona formation and stimuli responsive release (74, 75). They recombinantly produced polymers with either a net negative or net positive charge and used the salting out technique to form nanoparticles. They then performed ex vivo analysis of corona formation in whole blood (74). It was observed that the negatively charged nanospheres primarily attracted complement proteins and immunoglobulins, while positively charged particles primarily had fibrinogen-based proteins adsorbed on their surface (74). In a separate study, researchers utilized a polyanionic form of the silk from the aforementioned study and covalently attached a cytostatic drug to the particle surface and explored the response to pH and redox state (75). Ellman’s solution (a model to simulate sulfhydryl group containing drugs) was bound to cystine residues in the spider fibroin-inspired silk particle, which was then further modified by including a hydrazone linker. This system led to enhanced drug release under acidic conditions and oxidative stress in HeLa cultures (75). Researchers have also explored recombinantly producing proteins and peptides inspired by the spidroin proteins of other spider species (76).

The Dam-Kozlowska group has been building toward a cancer therapeutic DDS based on a recombinant silk fiber inspired by Nephila clavipes (77–79). They were able to produce a polymer based on the MaSp1 sequence from Nephila clavipes and include a Her2 binding peptide. Particles were produced by salting out and loaded with doxorubicin. They demonstrated enhanced binding to Her2-overexpressing SKOV3 cells and showed the particles themselves were noncytotoxic and could deliver doxorubicin to kill cancer cells (77). They recently tested this system in vivo and demonstrated safety (79) and targeted delivery in breast cancer models (78). The development of DDS based on silk nanomaterials continues to grow and researchers are moving toward potential for clinical translation.

Future Perspectives and Conclusion

The wide range of material properties available from the reconstitution of silk fibers makes them an interesting class of materials for future translational research. Specifically, silk fibroins from Bombyx mori are able to generate a wide array of drug delivery systems (DDS) given the range of fabrication techniques, modification methods, and utility in composite materials. Furthermore, spider silk-inspired and sericin biopolymers represent additional classes of materials for DDS. Each class of materials offers its own unique features, such as biodegradation, controllable immunogenicity, and favorable mechanical properties.

While many systems have been proposed, grand challenges still exist in the application of these materials to clinical settings. As with any natural material or recombinantly produced protein, ensuring good manufacturing practices as well as methods to remove contaminating molecules or organisms, such and endotoxins or mycotoxins, is critical. Sourcing these natural materials can also be a challenge, as Bombyx mori cultivation and farming is subject to our changing climate and regional differences in farming practices (80, 81), which can lead to variability in cocoons and subsequent silk properties. Recent advancements in genetic engineering technologies for the Bombyx mori silkworm suggest that improvements or modifications to protein structures within these systems is possible (65, 67–69, 82), thus providing an avenue for addressing current challenges in protein structure highlighted throughout this review. However, any change is not without added complication or risk, as modification to silk fibroin protein sequences can pose new challenges in protein expression, spinning, or purification. Additionally, chemical modifications to existing natural materials can also alter chemistries for improvements in affinity binding and drug loading (13, 83). Continued efforts to further open the design space to include silk fibers or silk fiber-based proteins from other species as well as recombinantly produced polymers and peptides is another strategy for overcoming current challenges. These efforts demonstrate the enormous future potential for this class of materials and their scale-up, use in advanced manufacturing, generation of novel polymer solutions, and development of treatments for a myriad of diseases. While this review was limited to nanomaterial-based DDS, we expect that the use of novel silk proteins for the formation of materials such as scaffolds, films, foams, and hydrogels is an area of interest for local DDS, regenerative medicine, and tissue engineering. Similarly, clinical trials using materials from or synthesized to replicate components silk fibers are on-going, with a large focus on inert filler materials for treatment of conditions like vocal cord paralysis (84). These advances toward clinical application are positive first steps for the continued investigation and development of all-natural silk-inspired nanomaterials for drug delivery systems.