Skip to main content
NCBI home page
Psychoradiology logoLink to Psychoradiology
. 2024 Feb 28;4:kkae003. doi: 10.1093/psyrad/kkae003

Self-objectification and eating disorders: the psychopathological and neural processes from psychological distortion to psychosomatic illness

Yinying Hu 1,#, Yafeng Pan 2,3,#, Liming Yue 4, Xiangping Gao 5,6,✉
PMCID: PMC10946225  PMID: 38666139

Eating disorders are a kind of serious psychosomatic illness characterized by abnormal eating habits and thoughts regarding food and body weight (Treasure et al., 2020). They are highly prevalent worldwide, particularly among adolescent girls and young adult women (Arcelus et al., 2011). For example, >9% of the US population suffers from eating disorders, and 22.2–31.6% of children and adolescents are at risk of developing eating disorders (He et al., 2017; Sparti et al., 2019). Around 5% of patients also experience symptoms of the illness throughout their entire lifetime, enduring long-term malnutrition and severe complications (Treasure et al., 2015), and >10% of patients experience suicidal ideation or behavior (Conti et al., 2017). Thus, the identification of individuals at greater risk for developing eating disorders and the proper implementation of early prevention and treatment strategies hold significant importance.

Eating disorders can arise due to a variety of factors, including the societal emphasis on physical appearance (Ata et al., 2015). When an individual places excessive importance on their physical appearance, it is referred to as self-objectification (Fredrickson & Roberts, 1997). Self-objectification is a psychological issue, consistently accompanied by habitually monitoring and being dissatisfied with one's body (Ward et al., 2023; Zheng et al., 2015). It emphasizes physical appearance over other attributes such as abilities, personality, and temperament, and includes evaluating one's own appearance from an external perspective, overlooking personal feelings and needs. Crucially, self-objectification has been linked to the presence of eating disorders, as demonstrated by correlational studies indicating that increased objectification of one's body is associated with elevated levels of disordered eating attitudes and behaviors (Calogero, 2009; Dakanalis et al., 2015; Daubenmier, 2005; Geng, 2020; Guo et al., 2021; Han et al., 2019; Jongenelis et al., 2014; Kilpela et al., 2019; Lindner et al., 2012; Moradi & Huang, 2008; Niu et al., 2020; Rodgers & Melioli, 2016; Tiggemann & Williams, 2012; Yao et al., 2018; Zhao & Jiang, 2021; Zhang & Zeng, 2023). In one study that observed a correlation between self-objectification and eating disorders (r = 0.39), a stronger effect was presented in women (r = 0.41) than in men (r = 0.20; Schaefer & Thompson, 2018). The link was also more pronounced in white (r = 0.42) and Asian American (r = 0.42) women compared to African American or Black (r = 0.34) women, and it was most robust among heterosexual women (r = 0.39) while being weakest among heterosexual men (r = 0.23; Nechita et al., 2021).

A significant proportion of individuals who experience self-objectification may develop eating disorders, but there is still no consensus on the mechanisms underlying this relationship. In this review, we provide a summary of psychological and neuroimaging research on the relationship between self-objectification and eating disorders, focusing on studies that have investigated the mechanisms involved in this link. First, we examine the psychopathological pathway of self-objectification. Second, we discuss the pathological mechanisms that connect self-objectification to eating disorders. Third, we discuss the neural mechanisms that underlie the connection. Finally, we propose directions for future research.

The psychopathological pathway of self-objectification

Self-objectification is a consequence of sexual objectification, which treats women as mere bodies or collections of body parts (Bernard et al., 2020). Generally, women are exposed to sexual objectification stimuli (i.e. bare body, sexy pose, and appearance evaluation) almost every day via television programs, music videos, movies, WeChat Moments, Weibo Square, and other social media, as well as daily interpersonal interactions. For example, it was revealed on analyzing 662 television programs that 96% of female actors were shown with their bodies exposed, but only 68% of male actors were shown wearing revealing clothing (Flynn et al., 2015). In another instance, a multinational sample of women aged 18–46 years reported experiencing an average of 2.7 incidents of interpersonal sexual objectification over a 5-day period (Koval et al., 2019).

Following self-objectification, a series of psychologically pathological risks often ensue, particularly in relation to eating disorders. Specifically, self-objectification signals an imbalance in self-concept, leading to negative outcomes such as reduced internal sensitivity, increased negative emotions, and impaired self-regulation (Ward et al., 2023). There is empirical evidence that individuals with self-objectification place an excessive emphasis on their appearance, considering it much more important than their competence (Vandenbosch et al., 2015). In addition, it has been shown that greater self-objectification is associated with less sensitivity to internal states (Ainley & Tsakiris, 2013), more negative emotions (such as shame, low self-esteem, anxiety; Dvir et al., 2021), and decreased self-regulation (Baker et al., 2017). For instance, individuals with greater self-objectification tended to feel less cold when wearing limited clothing outside a nightclub on a cold night (Felig et al., 2022), and they also performed more poorly on the Stroop test (Ching & Wu, 2022). A large number of studies have established a correlation between self-objectification and psychological issues, including depression and anxiety (Lindner & Tantleff-Dunn, 2017; Sun, 2021; Teng et al., 2019).

Self-objectification is essentially a form of rumination on the state of one's own body. That is, repetitive, prolonged, and recurrent negative thinking about one's own body, appearances, personal concerns and upsetting experiences. Earlier research has suggested that self-objectification may have more pronounced effects in individuals who are more inclined to ruminate in response to negative thoughts (Calogero & Jost, 2011). Furthermore, there is evidence that individuals experiencing self-objectification may become ensnared in ruminative thoughts about their own bodies, resulting in a decline in their overall sense of well-being (Jarrar, 2017). Taken together, self-objectification encompasses the concurrent presence of both body and emotion, persistent negative thought patterns, and the reciprocal reinforcement of negative emotions. These factors culminate in chronic depletion and regulatory dysfunction due to insufficient resources, ultimately elevating the risk of developing disordered eating behaviors.

The psychopathological mechanisms linking self-objectification and eating disorders

Early theory and research suggested that the link between self-objectification and eating disorders was mediated by body shame (Calogero, 2009; Fredrickson & Roberts, 1997). However, a longitudinal model did not confirm this explanatory pathway (Kilpela e t al., 2019). Another hypothesis, known as the allocentric lock hypothesis, suggests that the progression from self-objectification to eating disorders is related to the inability to update one's internalized body image with current sensory input through self-integration (Riva et al., 2015). Evidence has indicated that both individuals who self-objectifiers objectify and those with eating disorders show lower memory performance compared to the controls (Pacilli et al., 2016; Serino et al., 2015).

Here, we further suggest that self-rumination may bring out the relationship between self-objectification and eating disorders. Eating disorders are the result of self-criticism that is reinforced by rumination on negative body perceptions. Patients with eating disorders have a persistent negative body image, which extends to a negative scheme for self-concept (Riva & Dakanalis, 2018). A meta-analysis of 38 studies revealed that rumination was significantly associated with eating disorders both concurrently (r = 0.33) and prospectively (r = 0.23) and also that individuals with eating disorders exhibited greater levels of rumination compared to control participants (Smith et al., 2018). Moreover, in experimental studies that induced feelings of sadness or concerns related to eating or body image, and subsequently manipulated state rumination, it was noted that in women with eating disorders, rumination led to heightened negative mood, diminished body satisfaction, and increased analogue symptoms (e.g. the desire to binge or abstain) compared to conditions involving acceptance or distraction (Naumann et al., 2015, 2016).

Notably, the rumination observed in those with eating disorders is not limited to the psychological level (negative self-schemas); it is also present as behavioral rumination. This dual presence of rumination (psychological processes and behaviors) indicates that eating disorders are a disease that involves an interaction between the mind and the body. Thus, single physiological or psychological interventions have limited effectiveness in the treatment of eating disorders; as one example, medication, one of the most commonly used treatments, has shown limited effectiveness in addressing the psychological, somatic, or nutritional aspects of eating disorders (Blanchet et al., 2019). Despite receiving the most effective treatment (cognitive behavioral therapy), >60% of patients continue to display the core symptoms of eating disorders (Slade et al., 2018). On average, the effectiveness of current intervention methods is moderate, with remission rates ranging from 40 to 60% in cases of anorexia nervosa, bulimia nervosa, and binge-eating disorder (Eddy et al., 2017; Linardon, 2018).

The neural mechanisms linking self-objectification and eating disorders

The brain activity in the self-referential network may indicate a transition from self-objectification to eating disorders. Previous neuroimaging research has demonstrated the role of the self-referential network in self-objectification (Cikara et al., 2011; Cogoni et al., 2018; Du et al., 2023), self-rumination (Int–Veen et al., 2023; Laicher et al., 2022; Rosenbaum et al., 2021), and eating disorders (Brooks et al., 2011; Martins et al., 2020; Spangler et al., 2012). Specifically, individuals with higher levels of self-objectification show decreased brain activity in the self-referential network, including the medial frontal cortex, inferior frontal cortex, inferior parietal cortex, superior temporal cortex, and cingulate gyrus (Sun et al., 2016). However, it exhibits a distinct pattern during ruminative processes, as well as in individuals with eating disorders. One meta-analysis, involving experimental tasks examining rumination from 14 fMRI studies with a total of 286 healthy participants, has confirmed the link between self-rumination and activation of the self-referential network (Zhou et al., 2020). This association is specifically attributed to the dorsal medial prefrontal cortex subsystem, which is believed to promote self-generated thoughts, which are based on internally constructed representations rather than external ones (Buckner & DiNicola, 2019). In eating disorders, individuals demonstrate increased activation in the self-referential network compared to healthy controls when viewing food images (Brooks et al., 2011), performing cognitive control tasks (Seitz et al., 2016), and evaluating body and self-images (Spangler et al., 2012). This activity of the self-referential network could potentially signify the presence of negative thoughts and emotions concerning body image, such as ruminative preoccupation with body shape and anxiety about gaining weight.

The connectivity within the self-referential network might also contribute to the progression from self-objectification to eating disorders. Within the self-referential network, a core subsystem is present, comprising the medial prefrontal cortex, the posterior cingulate cortex, and the inferior parietal lobules. This subsystem serves as the foundation for self-relevant cognition, demonstrating consistent engagement across mental states involving self-oriented processing (Delahoy et al., 2022). When individuals engaged in rumination, there were increased connections between the core and the medial temporal lobe subsystem, while decreased connections between the core and the dorsal medial prefrontal cortex subsystem (Chen et al., 2020). Enhanced functional connectivity might signify immersion of oneself in the past, surrounded by negative thoughts, while decreased functional connectivity could be interpreted as a reduced focus on the present. The altered connections within the self-referential network are often associated with symptoms of eating disorders and other psychological illnesses (Chen et al., 2021). For instance, depression patients exhibited a more negative connectivity from the medial prefrontal cortex to the posterior cingulate cortex compared to healthy individuals, indicating an excessive regulation of the posterior cingulate cortex by the medial prefrontal cortex (Davey et al., 2017). In another example, participants with social anxiety disorder exhibited heightened excitatory connectivity from the posterior cingulate cortex to the medial prefrontal cortex and increased inhibitory connectivity from the inferior parietal lobule to the medial prefrontal cortex. These findings reflect the characteristic fear of negative social evaluation experienced by individuals with social anxiety disorder (Jamieson et al., 2023).

Besides the self-referential network, the connectivity between the self-referential, cognitive control, and body perception networks plays a role in the progression from self-objectification to eating disorders. For instance, the stronger the connection between the self-referential network and the somatosensory cortex, particularly in the secondary somatosensory cortex and ventral premotor cortex, the greater the level of self-objectification (Du et al., 2023). These connections indicate a heightened focus on external attributes of self-related sensory information in self-objectifiers, such as physical appearance. In eating disorders, the changes in connectivity between the self-referential, cognitive control, and body perception networks are found to be linked with more frequent eating-disorder behaviors (Chen et al., 2021; Domakonda et al., 2019; Frank et al., 2021; Gaudio et al., 2016; Haynos et al., 2021). In one recent study, high body image concerns and bulimic behaviors were correlated with increased connections within the cognitive control network, as well as between the cognitive control network, self-referential network, and visual perception network, with decreased connections present between the reward sensitivity network and visual perception network (Chen et al., 2023). This altered neural connectivity suggests the existence of some potential abnormal pathways underlying eating disorders, such as aberrant integration between information perception and reward valuation, and excessive rumination on self-referential thoughts about body image. Altogether, the activity and connectivity within and between the self-referential, cognitive control, and body perception networks could suggest a shift from self-objectification to the development of eating disorders.

Challenges and future directions

According to objectification theory (Fredrickson & Roberts, 1997), the involvement of self-objectification in the development of eating disorders is strongly implicated, and numerous studies have been conducted to empirically investigate the relationship between these constructs. Still, there remain outstanding challenges to examining the pathological pathway leading from self-objectification to the development of eating disorders, especially the underlying neural mechanisms.

First, scholars should broaden their research on the pathological characteristics and development of self-objectification by conducting longitudinal studies, as the use of cross-sectional data in previous studies has limited their ability to definitively identify the mechanism of self-objectification (Schaefer & Thompson, 2018). This may involve collecting online surveys that evaluate self-objectification, body surveillance, body shame, body dissatisfaction, and eating disorder pathology at the initial assessment, as well as 6-, 12-, and 24-month follow-ups. Second, since the self-referential, cognitive control, and body perception networks are now known to play a crucial role, research approaches must evolve accordingly, especially within investigations aimed at examining the association between the changes in these networks and the pathological characteristics of self-objectification, as well as the causal relationship with the development into eating disorders. Future studies could explore the particular neural networks that predict self-objectification characteristics, such as body surveillance, body shame, and body dissatisfaction, within the discovery sample of individuals. Additionally, they might investigate the specific neural networks that predict symptomatology associated with eating disorders, such as body image concerns, binge eating, and compensatory behaviors, within a cohort of self-objectifiers. Third, future research should investigate the feasibility of using neurobiological alterations in the self-referential network as diagnostic indicators for self-objectification, as well as a predictive indicator for the progression from self-objectification to eating disorders. Indeed, recent neuroimaging studies have attempted to identify predictors of risk factors across eating disorders, which offers a new direction for research (Chen et al., 2023). Future studies could use objectified material to initiate a state of self-objectification and to measure the activity of the self-referential network before and after priming. Fourth, it would be beneficial to use the brain activity and connectivity in the self-referential, cognitive control, and body perception networks as diagnostic and evaluative indicators for understanding the pathology and intervention effects of eating disorders. Future research could involve tracking a cohort of individuals experiencing self-objectification and analyzing both their brain activity and connectivity before and after the onset of eating disorder symptoms. Finally, recent studies have described the important contributions of non-invasive brain stimulation for the management of eating disorders (Duriez et al., 2020). By using techniques such as magnetic or electrical stimulation, future studies have the potential to modify the pattern of brain activity and connectivity associated with eating disorders, while measuring eating disorder symptoms before and after the stimulation.

In conclusion, empirical neuroimaging studies are needed in the future to clarify how self-objectification contributes to the development and maintenance of eating disorders. This knowledge could help inform prevention and intervention strategies and guide the development of targeted treatments.

Acknowledgement

This work was supported by the National Natural Science Foundation of China (nos. 62207025 and 62337001), the Humanities and Social Sciences Research Project from the Ministry of Education of China (no. 22YJC190017), the Fundamental Research Funds for the Central Universities to Y.P., the Construction Project of High-level Local Universities in Shanghai, and the Science Project at Shanghai Normal University.

Contributor Information

Yinying Hu, Department of Applied Psychology, School of Psychology, Shanghai Normal University, Shanghai, Shanghai 200234, China.

Yafeng Pan, Department of Psychology and Behavioral Sciences, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, Zhejiang 310058, China; The State Key Lab of Brain-Machine Intelligence, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, Zhejaing 310058, China.

Liming Yue, Department of Applied Psychology, School of Psychology, Shanghai Normal University, Shanghai, Shanghai 200234, China.

Xiangping Gao, Department of Applied Psychology, School of Psychology, Shanghai Normal University, Shanghai, Shanghai 200234, China; Shanghai Institute of Early Childhood Education, Shanghai Normal University, Shanghai, Shanghai 200234, China.

Author contributions

Yinying Hu (Conceptualization, Writing – original draft, Writing – review & editing), Yafeng Pan (Conceptualization, Writing – review & editing), Liming Yue (Writing – original draft), and Xiangping Gao (Conceptualization, Writing – review & editing).

Conflict of interests

The authors declare no competing interest.

References

  1. Ainley  V, Tsakiris  M (2013) Body conscious? Interoceptive awareness, measured by heartbeat perception, is negatively correlated with self-objectification. PLoS ONE. 8:e55568. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  2. Arcelus  J, Mitchell  AJ, Wales  J  et al. (2011) Mortality rates in patients with anorexia nervosa and other eating disorders: a meta-analysis of 36 studies. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 68:724–31. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  3. Ata  RN, Schaefer  LM, Thompson  JK (2015) Sociocultural theories of eating disorders. In: Levine  M., and Smolak  L. (eds). The Wiley Handbook of Eating Disorders. Chichester, UK: John Wiley and Sons, Ltd. [Google Scholar]
  4. Baker  A, Blanchard  C (2017) The effects of female “thin ideal” media on men's appearance schema, cognitive performance, and self-evaluations: a self-determination theory approach. Body Image. 22:103–13. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  5. Bernard  P, Cogoni  C, Carnaghi  A (2020) The sexualization–objectification link: sexualization affects the way people see and feel toward others. Curr Dir Psychol Sci. 29:134–9. [Google Scholar]
  6. Blanchet  C, Guillaume  S, Bat-Pitault  F  et al. (2019) Medication in AN: a multidisciplinary overview of meta-analyses and systematic reviews. J Clin Med. 8:278. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  7. Brooks  SJ, Daly  O′, O  G  et al. (2011) Differential neural responses to food images in women with bulimia versus anorexia nervosa. PLoS ONE. 6:e22259. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  8. Buckner  RL, DiNicola  LM (2019) The brain's default network: updated anatomy, physiology and evolving insights. Nat Rev Neurosci. 20:593–608. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  9. Calogero  RM, Jost  JT (2011) Self-subjugation among women: exposure to sexist ideology, self-objectification, and the protective function of the need to avoid closure. J Pers Soc Psychol. 100:211–28. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  10. Calogero  RM, Thompson  JK (2009) Sexual self-esteem in American and British college women: relations with self-objectification and eating problems. Sex Roles. 60:160–73. [Google Scholar]
  11. Chen  X, Chen  NX, Shen  YQ  et al. (2020) The subsystem mechanism of default mode network underlying rumination: a reproducible neuroimaging study. Neuroimage. 221:117185. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  12. Chen  X, Dong  D, Zhou  F  et al. (2023) Connectome-based prediction of eating disorder-associated symptomatology. Psychol Med. 53:5786–99. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  13. Chen  X, Gao  X, Qin  J  et al. (2021) Resting-state functional network connectivity underlying eating disorder symptoms in healthy young adults. NeuroImage Clin.  30:102671. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  14. Ching  BH-H, Wu  HX. (2022) Compliments on skin tone hamper cognitive performance of Chinese adolescent girls with stronger appearance contingent self-worth. Curr Psychol. 42:1–15.36468159 [Google Scholar]
  15. Cikara  M, Eberhardt  JL, Fiske  ST (2011) From agents to objects: sexist attitudes and neural responses to sexualized targets. J Cogn Neurosci. 23:540–51. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  16. Cogoni  C, Carnaghi  A, Silani  G (2018) Reduced empathic responses for sexually objectified women: an fMRI investigation. Cortex. 99:258–72. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  17. Conti  C, Lanzara  R, Scipioni  M  et al. (2017) The relationship between binge eating disorder and suicidality: a systematic review. Front Psychol. 8:2125. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  18. Dakanalis  A, Carra  G, Calogero  R  et al. (2015) The developmental effects of media-ideal internalization and self-objectification processes on adolescents’ negative body-feelings, dietary restraint, and binge eating. Eur Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 24:997–1010. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  19. Daubenmier  JJ (2005) The relationship of yoga, body awareness, and body responsiveness to self-objectification and disordered eating. Psychol Women Quart. 29:207–19. [Google Scholar]
  20. Davey  CG, Breakspear  M, Pujol  J  et al. (2017) A brain model of disturbed self-appraisal in depression. Am J Psychiatry. 174:895–903. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  21. Delahoy  R, Davey  CG, Jamieson  AJ  et al. (2022) Modulation of the brain's core-self network by self-appraisal processes. Neuroimage. 251:118980. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  22. Domakonda  MJ, He  X, Lee  S  et al. (2019) Increased functional connectivity between ventral attention and default mode networks in adolescents with bulimia nervosa. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 58:232–41. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  23. Du  X, Li  Q, Xiang  G  et al. (2023) The relationship between brain neural correlates, self-objectification, and interoceptive sensibility. Behav Brain Res. 439:114227. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  24. Duriez  P, Bou Khalil  R, Chamoun  Y  et al. (2020) Brain stimulation in eating disorders: state of the art and future perspectives. J Clin Med. 9:2358. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  25. Dvir  M, Kelly  JR, Tyler  JM  et al. (2021) I'm up here! sexual objectification leads to feeling ostracized. J Pers Soc Psychol. 121:332. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  26. Eddy  KT, Tabri  N, Thomas  JJ  et al. (2017) Recovery from anorexia nervosa and bulimia nervosa at 22-year follow-up. J Clin Psychiatry. 78:17085. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  27. Felig  RN, Jordan  JA, Shepard  SL  et al. (2022) When looking ‘hot' means not feeling cold: evidence that self-objectification inhibits feelings of being cold. Br J Soc Psychol. 61:455–70. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  28. Flynn  MA, Park  SY, Morin  DT  et al. (2015) Anything but real: body idealization and objectification of MTV docusoap characters. Sex Roles. 72:173–82. [Google Scholar]
  29. Frank  GK, Shott  ME, Stoddard  J  et al. (2021) Association of brain reward response with body mass index and ventral striatal-hypothalamic circuitry among young women with eating disorders. JAMA Psychiatry. 78:1123–33. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  30. Fredrickson  B, Roberts  TA (1997) Objectification theory: toward understanding women's lived experiences and mental health risks. Psychol Women Quart. 21:173–206. [Google Scholar]
  31. Gaudio  S, Wiemerslage  L, Brooks  SJ  et al. (2016) A systematic review of resting-state functional-MRI studies in anorexia nervosa: evidence for functional connectivity impairment in cognitive control and visuospatial and body-signal integration. Neurosci Biobehav Rev. 71:578–89. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  32. Geng  Y (2020) Self-objectification and eating behavior problems in college students: multiple mediating effects of internalized body shame and externalized body shame. Chinese J Clin Psychol. 28:364–8. [Google Scholar]
  33. Guo  L, Huang  M, Cai  G (2021) The influence of fashion media exposure on female middle school students' eating disorders: the serial mediating roles of self-objectification and appearance anxiety. Chinese J Clini Psychol. 29:343–6. [Google Scholar]
  34. Han  JH, Kim  SA, Kim  S  et al. (2019) Factors influencing disordered eating behavior based on the theory of triadic influence. Perspect Psychiatr Care. 55:366–71. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  35. Haynos  AF, Camchong  J, Pearson  CM  et al. (2021) Resting state hypoconnectivity of reward networks in binge eating disorder. Cereb Cortex. 31:2494–504. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  36. He  J, Cai  Z, Fan  X (2017) Prevalence of binge and loss of control eating among children and adolescents with overweight and obesity: an exploratory meta-analysis. Int J Eat Disord. 50:91–103. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  37. Int-Veen  I, Fallgatter  AJ, Ehlis  AC  et al. (2023) Prefrontal hypoactivation induced via social stress is more strongly associated with state rumination than depressive symptomatology. Sci Rep. 13:15147. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  38. Jamieson  AJ, Harrison  BJ, Delahoy  R  et al. (2023) A brain model of altered self-appraisal in social anxiety disorder. Transl Psychiatry. 13:344. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  39. Jarrar  HE (2017) The relationship between self-objectification and life satisfaction: the role of rumination. Master's Thesis, Faculty of Social and Behavioural Sciences, Utrecht University [Google Scholar]
  40. Jongenelis  MI, Byrne  SM, Pettigrew  S (2014) Self-objectification, body image disturbance, and eating disorder symptoms in young Australian children. Body Image. 11:290–302. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  41. Kilpela  LS, Calogero  R, Wilfred  SA  et al. (2019) Self-objectification and eating disorder pathology in an ethnically diverse sample of adult women: cross-sectional and short-term longitudinal associations. J Eating Disord. 7:1–10. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  42. Koval  P, Holland  E, Zyphur  MJ  et al. (2019) How does it feel to be treated like an object? Direct and indirect effects of exposure to sexual objectification on women's emotions in daily life. J Pers Soc Psychol. 116:885. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  43. Laicher  H, Int-Veen  I, Torka  F  et al. (2022) Trait rumination and social anxiety separately influence stress-induced rumination and hemodynamic responses. Sci Rep. 12:5512. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  44. Linardon  J (2018) Rates of abstinence following psychological or behavioral treatments for binge-eating disorder: meta-analysis. Int J Eat Disord. 51:785–97. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  45. Lindner  D, Tantleff-Dunn  S (2017) The development and psychometric evaluation of the self-objectification beliefs and behaviors scale. Psychol Women Quart. 41:254–72. [Google Scholar]
  46. Lindner  D, Tantleff-Dunn  S, Jentsch  F (2012) Social comparison and the ‘circle of objectification’. Sex Roles. 67:222–35. [Google Scholar]
  47. Martins  D, Leslie  M, Rodan  S  et al. (2020) Investigating resting brain perfusion abnormalities and disease target-engagement by intranasal oxytocin in women with bulimia nervosa and binge-eating disorder and healthy controls. Transl Psychiatry. 10:180. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  48. Moradi  B, Huang  YP (2008) Objectification theory and psychology of women: a decade of advances and future directions. Psychol Women Quart. 32:377–98. [Google Scholar]
  49. Naumann  E, Tuschen-Caffier  B, Voderholzer  U  et al. (2015) Rumination but not distraction increases eating-related symptoms in anorexia and bulimia nervosa. J Abnorm Psychol. 124:412. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  50. Naumann  E, Tuschen-Caffier  B, Voderholzer  U  et al. (2016) Spontaneous emotion regulation in anorexia and bulimia nervosa. Cogn Therapy Res. 40:304–13. [Google Scholar]
  51. Nechita  DM, Bud  S, David  D (2021) Shame and eating disorders symptoms: a meta-analysis. Int J Eat Disord. 54:1899–945. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  52. Niu  G, Sun  L, Liu  Q  et al. (2020) Selfie-posting and young adult women's restrained eating: the role of commentary on appearance and self-objectification. Sex Roles. 82:232–40. [Google Scholar]
  53. Pacilli  MG, Tomasetto  C, Cadinu  M (2016) Exposure to sexualized advertisements disrupts children's math performance by reducing working memory. Sex Roles. 74:389–98. [Google Scholar]
  54. Riva  G, Dakanalis  A (2018) Altered processing and integration of multisensory bodily representations and signals in eating disorders: a possible path toward the understanding of their underlying causes. Front Hum Neurosci. 12:49. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  55. Riva  G, Gaudio  S, Dakanalis  A (2015) The neuropsychology of self-objectification. Eur Psychol. 20:34–43. [Google Scholar]
  56. Rodgers  RF, Melioli  T (2016) The relationship between body image concerns, eating disorders and internet use, part I: a review of empirical support. Adolesc Res Rev. 1:95–119. [Google Scholar]
  57. Rosenbaum  D, Int-Veen  I, Laicher  H  et al. (2021) Insights from a laboratory and naturalistic investigation on stress, rumination and frontal brain functioning in MDD: an fNIRS study. Neurobiol Stress. 15:100344. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  58. Schaefer  LM, Thompson  JK (2018) Self-objectification and disordered eating: a meta-analysis. Int J Eat Disord. 51:483–502. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  59. Seitz  J, Hueck  M, Dahmen  B  et al. (2016) Attention network dysfunction in bulimia nervosa—an fMRI study. PLoS ONE. 11:e0161329. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  60. Serino  S, Dakanalis  A, Gaudio  S  et al. (2015) Out of body, out of space: impaired reference frame processing in eating disorders. Psychiatry Res. 230:732–4. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  61. Slade  E, Keeney  E, Mavranezouli  I  et al. (2018) Treatments for bulimia nervosa: a network meta-analysis. Psychol Med. 48:2629–36. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  62. Smith  KE, Mason  TB, Lavender  JM (2018) Rumination and eating disorder psychopathology: a meta-analysis. Clin Psychol Rev. 61:9–23. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  63. Spangler  DL, Allen  MD (2012) An fMRI investigation of emotional processing of body shape in bulimia nervosa. Int J Eat Disord. 45:17–25. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  64. Sparti  C, Santomauro  D, Cruwys  T  et al. (2019) Disordered eating among Australian adolescents: prevalence, functioning, and help received. Int J Eat Disord. 52:246–54. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  65. Sun  Q (2016) Sexual objectification and self-objectification: investigating the relationship and the underlying neurocognitive mechanism. Doctoral Dissertation. Chongqing, China: Southwestern University. [Google Scholar]
  66. Sun  Q (2021) Selfie editing and consideration of cosmetic surgery among young Chinese women: the role of self-objectification and facial dissatisfaction. Sex Roles. 84:670–9. [Google Scholar]
  67. Teng  F, Gao  W, Huang  X  et al. (2019) Body surveillance predicts men's and women's perceived loneliness: a serial mediation model. Sex Roles. 81:97–108. [Google Scholar]
  68. Tiggemann  M, Williams  E (2012) The role of self-objectification in disordered eating, depressed mood, and sexual functioning among women: a comprehensive test of objectification theory. Psychol Women Quart. 36:66–75. [Google Scholar]
  69. Treasure  J, Cardi  V, Leppanen  J  et al. (2015) New treatment approaches for severe and enduring eating disorders. Physiol Behav. 152:456–65. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  70. Treasure  J, Duarte  TA, Schmidt  U (2020) Eating disorders. Lancet North Am Ed. 395:899–911. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  71. Vandenbosch  L, Muise  A, Eggermont  S  et al. (2015) Sexualizing reality television: associations with trait and state self-objectification. Body Image. 13:62–6. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  72. Ward  LM, Daniels  EA, Zurbriggen  EL  et al. (2023) The sources and consequences of sexual objectification. Nat Rev Psychol. 2:496–513. [Google Scholar]
  73. Yao  L, Lian  S, Chai  H  et al. (2018) The effect of self-objectification on female undergraduates’ restrained eating: a moderated mediation model. J Psychol Sci. 41:639–45. [Google Scholar]
  74. Zhang  B, Zeng  Y (2023) The influence of passive social networking site use on adolescents’ restricted eating: a moderated mediation model. Stud Psychol Behav. 21:388–94. [Google Scholar]
  75. Zhao  C, Jiang  Z (2021) Effect of self-objectification on abnormal eating behavior of female college students: a moderated mediation effect. Chinese J Clin Psychol. 29:956–60. [Google Scholar]
  76. Zheng  P, Lv  Z, Todd  J (2015) Self-objectification: effects on women's mental health and hypothesized mechanisms. Adv Psychol Sci. 23:93. [Google Scholar]
  77. Zhou  HX, Chen  X, Shen  YQ  et al. (2020) Rumination and the default mode network: meta-analysis of brain imaging studies and implications for depression. Neuroimage. 206:116287. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

Articles from Psychoradiology are provided here courtesy of Oxford University Press

RESOURCES