Abstract
终末期肾脏病(ESRD)患者的主要死因是心血管疾病,近年来发现三甲胺-N-氧化物(TMAO)是致病过程中的特异性危险因素之一。TMAO由膳食中胆碱、肉碱等物质经肠道微生物代谢、肝脏黄素单加氧酶催化生成。ESRD患者的肠道菌群改变,促使肠源性尿毒症毒素(TMAO、吲哚硫酸盐、吲哚-3-乙酸等)蓄积,而升高的TMAO通过促炎、增加清道夫受体表达、抑制胆固醇逆向转运等机制加速动脉粥样硬化。在这篇综述中,本研究介绍了TMAO的生理功能、代谢过程及ESRD中TMAO促进心血管疾病发生与发展的机制,回顾了目前可能用于逆转肠道微生物群紊乱的干预措施,如活性炭制剂、粪便微生物移植、膳食改善、益生元和益生菌引入,并重点探究降低肠源性尿毒症毒素TMAO的干预靶点,旨在为ESRD患者探寻更多心血管疾病治疗的可能性。
Keywords: 终末期肾脏病, 心血管疾病, 三甲胺-N-氧化物, 动脉粥样硬化
Abstract
The main cause of death in patients with end-stage renal disease (ESRD) is cardiovascular disease, and trimethylamine-N-oxide (TMAO) has been found to be one of the specific risk factors in the pathogenic process in recent years. TMAO is derived from intestinal bacterial metabolism of dietary choline, carnitine and other substances and subsequently catalyzed by flavin monooxygenase enzymes in the liver. The changes of intestinal bacteria in ESRD patients have contributed to the accumulation of gut-derived uremic toxins such as TMAO, indoxyl sulfate and indole-3-acetic acid. While elevated TMAO concentration accelerates atherosclerosis through mechanisms such as inflammation, increased scavenger receptor expression, and inhibition of reverse cholesterol transport. In this review, this research introduces the biological function, metabolic processes of TMAO and mechanisms by which TMAO promotes the progression of cardiovascular disease in ESRD patients and summarizes current interventions that may be used to reverse gut microbiota disturbances, such as activated carbon, fecal microbial transplantation, dietary improvement, probiotic and probiotic introduction. It also focuses on exploring intervention targets to reduce the gut-derived uremic toxin TMAO in order to explore the possibility of more cardiovascular disease treatments for ESRD patients.
Keywords: End-stage renal disease, Cardiovascular disease, Trimethylamine-N-oxide, Atherosclerosis
引言
大多数终末期肾脏病(end-stage renal disease,ESRD)患者死于心血管疾病(cardiovascular disease,CVD),目前尚无针对该类人群的特有治疗策略[1-2]。CVD传统危险因素,如年龄、高血压、糖尿病、血脂异常等,并不能完全解释其患病率和死亡率的增加[3]。越来越多的证据表明,慢性肾脏病(chronic kidney disease,CKD)是CVD重要的、独立的危险因素,所以近年来ESRD特异性危险因素,如尿毒症毒素、炎症、氧化应激等,对CVD的影响成为了研究热点[4]。肠道来源的尿毒症毒素三甲胺-N-氧化物(trimethylamine-N-oxide,TMAO)在CKD患者中表达升高,临床研究已证实TMAO通过促进血栓形成、血管炎症及抑制体内胆固醇的逆向转运等机制加速动脉粥样硬化的发生[5-6]。在CKD患者中开展的研究也同样揭示了血清TMAO升高与冠状动脉粥样硬化的相关性,由此可见TMAO在CKD患者人群的CVD发展中扮演着至关重要的角色[7]。本综述旨在回顾TMAO的理化性质和代谢过程,探究肠源性尿毒症毒素TMAO损伤ESRD人群心血管系统的机制并寻找相应的靶点以降低TMAO的代谢,为ESRD患者提供更多的CVD治疗策略。
1. TMAO的生理功能及代谢
1.1. TMAO的生理功能
TMAO是由三甲胺(trimethylamine,TMA)形成的N-氧化物。小分子有机化合物TMAO在生物体内展现出多样的生理功能:① 通过改变氢键强度调节蛋白质在水中的稳定性;② 作为电子受体参与细菌的厌氧代谢;③ 作为渗透调节物质维持细胞体积等[8]。
1.2. TMAO的代谢
鱼类、牛奶、菠菜等富含胆碱、L-肉碱、甜菜碱的食物经人体摄取后,再由肠道细菌代谢形成TMA。此过程与肉碱单加氧酶(cntA、cntB)、胆碱-TMA裂解酶(cutC、cutD)等酶的作用密切相关[9]。其中大肠杆菌等肠道微生物表达的cntA和cntB作为氧化还原酶,将L-肉碱转换为TMA[10]。随后TMA通过门静脉进入肝脏,经肝脏黄素单加氧酶(flavin monooxygenase enzymes,FMOs)氧化生成TMAO。其中黄素单加氧酶3(flavin monooxygenase enzyme 3,FMO3)的活性比黄素单加氧酶1(flavin monooxygenase enzyme 1,FMO1)高约10倍。在编码FMO3的基因发生突变的患者体内,TMA会在尿液、汗液和呼出气体中积聚,从而导致鱼腥味综合症[11]。
TMAO是低分子物质,大部分经肾脏通过肾小球滤过及肾小管分泌至尿液中而被清除[12]。体外实验表明,肾小管上皮细胞的有机阳离子转运蛋白和ATP结合盒转运蛋白在TMAO的排泄中发挥重要作用[13]。
2. ESRD患者中的TMAO与CVD
2.1. ESRD患者体内TMAO水平升高
肾功能损伤是造成ESRD患者体内TMAO蓄积的重要原因。肾是TMAO排泄的主要途径,随着CKD的进展,TMAO因肾小球滤过率下降而不断在患者体内积聚。Pelletier等[14]测定了124名CKD和血液透析患者的血浆TMAO浓度,发现CKD组的血浆TMAO水平显著升高,并与肾小球滤过率呈负相关。一项纳入了32项临床研究的荟萃分析同样表明,TMAO浓度升高与肾小球滤过率下降具有相关性[15]。另有研究发现,CKD大鼠有机阳离子转运蛋白表达降低,导致肾小管上皮细胞摄取TMAO能力下降,提示肾小管分泌功能的减退也是TMAO在体内蓄积的机制[16]。
ESRD患者肠道菌群微环境紊乱促进体内TMAO进一步蓄积。目前,已知约有100万亿肠道微生物以一定比例分布在正常成年人的肠道中,它们与人体形成共生平衡关系[17]。然而在CKD患者中,肠道微生物群的平衡关系被打破,导致产生尿毒素的细菌扩增,肠源性尿毒症毒素合成增加。目前已知的原因是:CKD患者代谢性酸中毒;尿毒症毒素从血液扩散至肠腔;抗生素及铁剂的过量使用。微生物数据分析证明,ESRD患者肠道菌群生物合成TMAO、吲哚等毒素的潜能提升,导致血浆中尿毒症毒素浓度升高[18]。此外,蓄积在肠腔中的尿毒素破坏了肠上皮细胞间的紧密连接,同时伴有结肠上皮细胞必需营养素短链脂肪酸的生成减少[19]。以上因素共同作用导致尿毒素经损伤的肠道上皮屏障进入体循环,进而诱导全身炎症。综上所述,如图1所示,在CKD患者人群中肠道微生物群改变致TMAO合成增加并进入体循环,伴随着TMAO的肾脏清除率下降,从而导致TMAO水平在CKD患者中升高。
图 1.
Metabolic process of TMAO in patients with ESRD
ESRD患者TMAO代谢过程
2.2. TMAO与CVD
血清TMAO与CVD的发生发展密切相关。载脂蛋白E(apolipoprotein E,ApoE)基因敲除小鼠膳食补充胆碱、左旋肉碱或直接补充TMAO,导致主动脉根部粥样硬化斑块总面积增加[20]。超声心动图及病理检测证实,大鼠在腹腔注射TMAO后出现心肌肥厚和心脏纤维化,而这种效应在注射抑制TMAO合成的抗生素后减弱[21]。有关TMAO促进CVD发生的相关机制研究已深入分子层面。首先,TMAO的促炎作用已得到广泛证实。Chou等[22]探究了81例稳定型心绞痛患者病例,发现TMAO通过促进白介素(interleukin,IL)-1β的合成与释放介导细胞炎症,并抑制内皮细胞功能。TMAO还能增加清道夫受体的表达,促进巨噬细胞摄取氧化低密度脂蛋白,形成泡沫细胞[23]。此外,TMAO可以增加血小板细胞内质网钙的释放,诱导血小板高反应性,从而促进血小板聚集和血栓形成[24]。这些具体的作用机制为揭示TMAO的心血管损伤效应提供了理论基础。
众多研究已证实在肾功能完好的人群中,TMAO具有促进动脉粥样硬化及心肌肥厚、纤维化的作用,因此CKD患者体内TMAO蓄积同样也会促进CVD的发展。对CKD患者进行的5年随访发现,高血浆TMAO水平CKD患者的包括CVD在内的5年全因死亡率明显升高[25]。动物实验显示,CKD大鼠血清TMAO水平升高促进了血管钙化。这为TMAO在CKD背景下对心血管的损伤提供了直接有力的证据[26]。此外,TMAO能直接作用于肾,促进肾功能不全,导致TMAO在CKD患者体内进一步蓄积。经胆碱喂养6周的小鼠血浆TMAO水平升高,将喂养时间延长至16周,小鼠血清胱抑素C表达升高[25]。肾纤维化是ESRD的最终结局,TMAO通过活化肾成纤维细胞,增加胶原蛋白的合成促进肾间质纤维化[27]。然而,TMAO参与CKD中CVD发生的具体机制尚未完全明确,有望成为未来的研究重点。
3. 潜在干预措施
肠道微生物所含基因的数量是人类的150多倍,基因多样性帮助它们更好地在人体中发挥生理功能。然而,肠道菌群基因组也相对更容易受到饮食及其他因素的影响,相关代谢会随着肠道的生态平衡改变而相应变化。当前已有许多关于如何通过逆转肠道微生物群紊乱以延缓CKD患者人群CVD发展的研究,本文对目前已有的潜在治疗方法进行了总结。
3.1. 膳食改善
CKD患者的低钾低磷、低纤维饮食促进了肠道微生物群落的改变,在肠源性尿毒症毒素的产生中起到了一定的推动作用。有学者认为膳食纤维可以改善肠道微生物群并调节相关代谢,进而降低发生代谢性疾病的风险[28]。Lau等[29]提出可通过摄入适量高纤维含量食物和酸奶、奶酪等富含共生菌的食物,以产生更加平衡的肠道微生物群,进而改善CKD患者人群中炎症的发生发展,但仍需要更多的随机对照试验支持此设想。
3.2. 克里美净
克里美净(AST-120)是一种高效的活性炭制剂,不仅能吸附尿毒症毒素前体,还能在正常和肾功能衰竭情况下影响一些肠道微生物群的丰度[30]。2012年日本的一项回顾性研究报道了AST-120对延缓CKD进展有作用[31]。但随后一项对2 035名CKD4期受试者中进行的多国、随机、双盲试验结果却显示,AST-120对肾脏疾病进展或患者的生存率没有显著的影响[32]。这些研究结果体现出肠道微生物网络的不确定性和复杂性。究竟通过何种方法才能调控微生物群落,从而减缓疾病进展,这需要学者进一步探究。
3.3. 益生元和益生菌
引入适宜的益生菌或益生元组合物调节肠道微生物组对抑制肠源性尿毒症毒素的生成具有重要价值[33]。研究发现,抗性淀粉(一种益生元)可以有效地降低CKD患者血浆中IL-6等炎症因子[34]。除此之外,还有相关研究证实了益生菌和益生元可以改善CVD,然而这些研究的规模相对比较小,仍待解决临床实践的不确定性[35]。
3.4. 粪便微生物移植
粪便微生物移植(fecal microbiota transplantation,FMT)是一种外源性引入肠道菌群的直接方法。在一项有关心肌炎治疗的研究中发现,FMT可增加心肌炎小鼠体内微生物丰度,减少炎症浸润,改善心肌损伤[36]。目前有关FMT减轻CKD患者的代谢并发症和尿毒症毒素积累的相关报道较少。FMT虽在一定程度上被证实是有效的,但捐献者的选择、微生物的筛选、适用范围的确立等尚未确定具体标准[37]。
3.5. TMAO代谢靶点
TMAO代谢过程是发现新型治疗策略的潜在靶点。TMAO的代谢依赖于膳食中的TMA前体、肠道微生物群和肝脏中特定的酶FMOs。前期的研究已经发现并证实雷尼替丁和非那雄胺可改善ApoE基因敲除小鼠的肠道菌群紊乱并降低TMAO水平,从而减少血管斑块沉积,延缓动脉粥样硬化,其中非那雄胺的作用效果更加明显[38]。有趣的是,一项有关卵巢早衰的研究显示,非瑟酮可通过调节肠道微生物抑制IL-12分泌,并降低外周血分化群4(cluster of differentiation,CD4)中CD4+ T淋巴细胞数量,从而减轻卵巢早衰[39]。此项研究中扩增的肠道微生物与非那雄胺导致的微生物群落变化有种属类别上的相互吻合之处,故推断非那雄胺可能通过减少IL-12分泌,抑制外周血CD4+ T淋巴细胞活化,从而缓解炎症状态。血浆TMAO水平与IL-12之间的相关性也恰好支持了这一推测[40]。
肠道细菌中将胆碱转化为TMA的酶也是抑制TMAO生成的药物靶点之一。基于这些酶的基因簇已被鉴定,合成基因编码产物的酶抑制剂就可以抑制TMA的产生。有研究表明,3,3-二甲基-1-丁醇是胆碱类似物,它不仅可以抑制胆碱、肉碱和甜菜碱转化为TMA,还能降低ApoE基因敲除小鼠血浆中TMAO浓度,并抑制泡沫细胞形成及动脉粥样硬化[41]。
综上所述,抑制TMAO代谢药物可能成为延缓ESRD患者疾病进展的新靶点,然其具体机制仍不明确,需进一步探索。
4. 总结
在ESRD患者中,TMAO由TMA前体经肠道微生物群和肝脏酶代谢形成,进入血液循环后通过多种机制造成动脉粥样硬化,加速CVD进展。目前许多用以改善肠道微生物群紊乱的干预措施的有效性仍需开展更多临床试验加以论证,例如直接引入外源性肠道菌群增加肠道微生物丰度;借助益生元和益生菌调节微生物群;利用AST120减缓肠道炎症;增加高纤维类食物摄入平衡肠道菌群等。初步的研究证实了非那雄胺、雷尼替丁可有效降低TMAO含量,延缓动脉粥样硬化,据推测这可能与抑制CD4+ T淋巴细胞活化和IL-12分泌密切相关,未来对具体调控机制的进一步探索将为ESRD患者提供CVD靶向治疗的新策略。
重要声明
利益冲突声明:本文全体作者均声明不存在利益冲突。
作者贡献声明:任园主要负责文献检索、综述撰写;王佐元主要负责文献的整理归纳与分析;薛骏主要负责提供论文写作指导及审阅修订。
Funding Statement
国家自然科学基金资助项目(8207033533)
National Natural Science Foundation of China
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