Adapting to technological change: An investigation of translator training and the translation market in the Arab world

Abstract

This study overviews the technology-related skills required by the translation market and the potential (mis)alignment between market needs and the skills developed in translator training programs in the Arab world. To this end, we collected and analyzed a corpus of 145 job ads for Arabic translation or localization services, seeking to spot market trends in the technology skills required. The study also collected and analyzed documentary evidence on translation programs in the Arab world to reveal the types of technology-related courses and the skills they foster. The findings reveal that computer-aided translation and software localization skills are increasingly required by the Arabic translation market. Moreover, the number of technology-related courses increased over time as training programs updated their offerings to meet current and expected future market demands. However, only a limited number of translation programs offer localization courses. This indicated a potential area of improvement. This study's insights should inform the development of translator training program courses to meet the job market's evolving needs.

1. Introduction

The global translation and language services market was valued at US$ 62.6 billion in 2021 [1] and is expected to continue growing in the coming years [2,3]. The market is constantly evolving and expanding to meet the needs of increasingly diverse customers and tasks [4]. The last two decades have introduced several translation-related tasks and file types that go beyond the mere translation of texts and textual content. These include online content, audiovisual material, and software applications that require translation and adaptation in different target languages and cultures. This increases the pressure on translators to gain the technical skills needed to secure decent jobs. In this regard, Öner Bulut [5] argues that “the human translator is increasingly challenged by technology in unprecedented ways, which has serious repercussions for translator training as well as the translation profession” (p.1). Despite the importance of translation technologies in this globalized world, there is a pronounced gap between the translation market and translation training programs in the Arab world, as reported by several translation scholars [[6], [7], [8]].

One main reason behind this gap is the rapid technological advances and developments in file types that translators must handle, as well as the tools they are asked to use at work. Translation technologies have revolutionized the way translation is performed, but also present a number of challenges for human translators [9]. Nowadays, knowledge in translation technologies has become a prerequisite as employers seek language professionals who can use a wide variety of translation tools and technologies. Consequently, translator training programs must constantly revise their course offerings and the types of skills they attempt to cultivate in graduates to produce employable language professionals.

This paper discusses the (mis)alignment between translator skills developed by training programs in the Arab world and the translation market's skill requirements. Its analysis is informed by collecting job ads published on online job sites and the technology-related courses offered by translator training institutions in the Arab world, aiming to reveal the extent to which these offerings meet technology-related requirements in the job market for translators. The job ads and training programs data are analyzed quantitatively and qualitatively. The quantitative analysis aims to reveal the percentage of technology-related skills and tasks in the collected corpus of job ads, as well as the number and percentage of technology-related courses offered in the Arab world. Meanwhile, the qualitative analysis identifies market trends by overviewing technology-related tasks and the types of technologies they specify; it also concentrates on the technology-related course descriptions and learning outcomes of translator training programs. The significance of this study lies in overviewing current translation market trends and the status of teaching technology-related courses in the Arab world. Its insights can inform current and new translator-training programs for developing industry-related training materials and courses.

2. Technology-driven changes

Several advances in the area of translation, such as machine translation (MT), post-editing (PE), computer-aided translation (CAT), and localization, have recently been introduced, challenging translation-training institutions and programs to meet current and future market demands.

MT is “the process by which a computer application is used to translate texts from one natural language into another” [10]. It has been utilized by several language service providers in response to the huge volume of linguistic content created both online and offline. This adaptation is especially evident on online platforms, which have to handle a huge volume of content created every day in different languages [11]. MT has gained extensive attention in recent years due to its multiple advantages, such as reducing time, effort, and cost. PE involves fixing MT outputs to achieve acceptable quality levels [12]. It is considered an important component in the skillset of any modern translator. To effectively use MT and PE for professional translation work, translators must understand the strengths and limitations of the technology and be familiar with best practices for PE of machine-translated texts. Training programs and resources are available to help translators develop these skills, and many translation companies and organizations offer relevant guidelines and standards.

Translation environment tools1 are software programs that assist translators' work by leveraging two main technologies: translation memory (TM) and termbases (TBs) [13]. TM systems function as a database of previously translated text segments. In other words, a TM is “a database of paired text segments, where Segment B is a translation of Segment A. Translators use TMs to ‘remember’ the content of past translations” [14]. A segment could be sentences, paragraphs, or headings. When a translator encounters a segment similar to one previously translated and stored in the TM database, the stored translation is displayed for the translator to use or edit as needed [15]. Another significant tool in translation projects is terminology management systems. Terms and their related translations are kept in TBs, whose usage ensures that terms are consistently translated throughout a translation project, enhancing the correctness and coherence of the translated text as a whole.

The fourth technology-related translation task involves localization, broadly defined as the “processes whereby digital content and products developed in one locale are adapted for sale and use in one or more other locales” [16]. Localization can be further divided into four main types: software, web, videogame, and small device localization [17] Software localization involves translating and adapting the content of computer programs to other languages and locales, whereas web localization focuses on translating websites and adapting their content into other languages. This includes images, graphics, colors, and other non-textual elements. Relatedly, video game localization entails converting textual, linguistic, and non-linguistic assets of a video game from one language into another [18].

3. Literature review

Translator training and the translation market in the Arab world have received relatively limited attention from scholars, with only a few prior studies. One of the first studies to investigate alignment of the language industry with the offerings of Arabic translation programs was conducted by Ref. [6]; their work has been used by translation training programs in the Arab world to align course offerings with translation-market needs. Al-Batineh and Bilali [6] conducted an in-depth investigation into the alignment, or lack thereof, between translator training programs and the language industry in the Arab world. Their comprehensive study encompassed a detailed survey of 61 translator training programs across the MENA (Middle East and North Africa) region, including countries such as Algeria, Bahrain, Egypt, Iraq, Jordan, Kuwait, Lebanon, Morocco, Palestine, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, Sudan, Syria, Tunisia, and the UAE. The aim was to uncover the skill sets these programs were focusing on to equip their graduates. They then paralleled this data with an analysis of 50 translation-job descriptions published in the MENA region, thereby compiling information on the specific needs, tasks, and qualifications sought by employers. The core of their analysis involved a systematic comparison between the curricula and course descriptions of these translator training programs and the demands of the translation market. This approach enabled them to assess how well academic programs were preparing students for the actual needs of the translation industry in the region. Al-Batineh and Bilali's findings revealed a significant gap between the curricula of these translator training programs and the evolving demands of the translation industry. Notably, their analysis indicated that many of these programs were not sufficiently incorporating technological skills that are increasingly essential in the modern translation sector, such as computer-assisted translation (CAT) tools and localization techniques. Despite the growing importance of these competencies in the global market, a considerable number of programs continued to focus predominantly on traditional translation skills, overlooking the integration of newer, technology-based competencies. Additionally, their study highlighted a disparity in the emphasis on practical, real-world translation tasks versus theoretical knowledge, suggesting a need for curricula to evolve towards more applied learning approaches. The comparison with job descriptions underscored the industry's preference for candidates well-versed in contemporary translation technologies, a skill set that was not adequately addressed in many of the programs surveyed. These findings underscored the urgency for educational institutions in the MENA region to adapt their curricula to better align with the dynamic requirements of the language industry, thereby enhancing the employability and readiness of their graduates for the global translation market.

Unlike the regional scope of Al-Batineh and Bilali's [6] research, Sayaheen's [7] study concentrates on a single university, offering a more in-depth but less geographically diverse perspective. This approach allows for a detailed understanding of curriculum alignment with market demands in a specific educational context.

From a different perspective [19], explored how CAT tools were integrated into the training programs for translators at multiple universities in Saudi Arabia including King Saud University, Princess Nourah University, Imam Mohammed Ibin Saud Islamic University, Prince Sultan University, and Saudi Electronic University. The study aimed to evaluate both the adequacy of this integration and how effectively translation students and graduates used CAT tools across various courses and tasks. Al-Rumaih's research utilized a mixed-methods approach, combining data from study plans, an electronic survey, and semi-structured interviews. The findings revealed that CAT tools had not been fully integrated into these programs. Some universities did not offer dedicated CAT courses, and a significant portion of participants did not utilize CAT tools in their translation work. This highlights a gap in the curriculum that could potentially impact the employability and skill development of translation students and graduates. The study's findings suggest a need for curriculum reforms to incorporate technology more effectively, ensuring that translation students are well-equipped with the necessary skills and competencies for the job market.

Abu-Ghararah [20] takes a unique approach by examining the translation industry and organizations in Saudi Arabia specifically, unlike broader studies like Al-Batineh and Bilali [6] that cover multiple countries. This focus offers insights into the unique demands of the Saudi translation market. The data gathered and analyzed consisted of a review of the current state of the translation industry, the types of translation organizations in Saudi Arabia, and the specific demands of the marke. The analysis indicated a significant gap between the competencies developed through academic translator training programs and the requirements of the Saudi translation market. The study suggested the necessity of restructuring university translation programs to better align with the market's needs, emphasizing on the development of skills such as technological proficiency, specialized domain knowledge, and practical translation skills tailored to the dynamic and specific needs of the translation industry in Saudi Arabia.

Different from the curriculum-focused studies of previous research, Salamah [8] emphasizes recruitment practices and job-market readiness, providing a more direct link between academic training and market employment opportunities, using the PACTE model of translation competence. A mixed-methods approach was employed, combining interviews, a questionnaire, and job-ads analysis. The findings revealed a gap between translator training outcomes and job market needs, highlighting the importance of enhancing trainees’ job-market skills and their understanding of professional translation practice. In practical terms, that study suggests the need for additional support for translation professionals in Saudi Arabia, including specialized accreditation for training programs and licensing requirements for practitioners, thereby better aligning training programs with job market demands.

Elsewhere, Alshargabi [21] sought to identify the translation skills and competencies demanded by the Yemeni market, using a questionnaire developed based on contemporary literature and administered to 50 professional translators operating in Sana'a. The survey encompassed five competency categories: bilingual, cultural, translation, instrumental, and strategic, as well as the psycho-physiological aspects of translators. The findings reveal that all five translation competencies hold significant importance in the market, with 21 individual competencies ranked as highly important. Notable competencies highlighted by the study include language proficiency, bicultural competence, problem-solving abilities, and effective utilization of dictionaries and information-retrieval resources. Conversely, competencies associated with interpretation and modern translation technologies were deemed less crucial, potentially reflecting the challenging circumstances in Yemen, such as the lack of conferences, workshops, and experts in translation technology. Despite the diverse geographic focuses of previous studies, they all conclude that improvements are needed in translator training programs. The recommendations they propose, however, differ based on the unique challenges and circumstances in their respective regions.

Previous studies on market demand and translator training often have limitations in terms of data scope or focus. For example, the study by Al-Batineh and Bilali [6] was based on data collected in 2016. Subsequent research, including works by Sayaheen [7], Abu-Ghararah [20], Al-Rumaih [19], Salamah [8], and Al-Khulaidi and Alzokhaimy [22], primarily targeted translation programs in specific countries. Our study aims to provide an updated and more encompassing analysis, focusing on the technological skills taught in translator-training programs across the Arab world. We specifically examine how these programs have adapted to include translation-related technologies, representing some of the most recent advancements in the field. This approach allows us to compare the current curriculum with the evolving demands of the translation market, highlighting areas of progress and ongoing gaps in translator education.

4. Methodology

Data analyzed in this study were collected from two sources: online job ads and the websites of translator-training programs. The data collection phase was conducted over a period from December 2, 2022, to February 12, 2023. Firstly, in our quest to analyze job market demands, we collected a total of 145 job ads focusing on translation-related tasks. This was achieved through a detailed search process. We employed Google Careers as our search platform, using specific keywords such as 'Arabic translation/translator' and 'localization/localizer'. Google Careers functions as a specialized search engine, specifically designed to search for job listings across various job websites. To ensure a thorough and unbiased search, we applied a systematic approach in selecting these terms, acknowledging their relevance and prevalence in the industry. The job ads were saved in txt files to be filtered in the subsequent stage. Each job ad was then evaluated against a set of predetermined criteria. That is, the ads were kept only if they explicitly mentioned the need for skills in translation and/or localization technology, such as familiarity with translation/localization software, CAT tools, machine translation, or other relevant technologies. This criterion ensured that we focused on positions where technological proficiency is a key component. The ads that were vague or lacked clear descriptions of job roles and responsibilities were excluded. This was to ensure that our analysis was based on well-defined job positions. This filtering process led to the exclusion of 95 job ads, primarily due to their lack of emphasis on translation technology skills. The remaining 50 job ads, which conformed to our stringent criteria, constituted our final corpus. This corpus was then dissected to extract insights into the required skills and technology-related experience and to identify prevailing trends and requirements in technological competencies. (refer to Appendix 1 for a sample of job ads).

In the second phase of the data collection, we conducted a comprehensive analysis of translator-training programs in the Arab World. To create a focused list of programs, we applied specific criteria: only those offering detailed course descriptions and clearly defined learning outcomes for their BA or MA programs in translation were included. This criterion ensured that we selected programs with a structured and transparent curriculum. Programs lacking these detailed descriptions, or those that do not offer translation-technology components in their curriculum, were excluded. The final list comprised 23 programs across 11 Arab countries: Algeria, Egypt, Jordan, Lebanon, Morocco, Oman, Palestine, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, Tunisia, and the United Arab Emirates.

Detailed information was gathered on the number and types of technology-related translation courses within each program. This included elective and mandatory courses, course content, and the level at which they were offered. For the purpose of this study, 'technology-related translation courses' were defined as those covering areas such as CAT tools, machine translation, and localization, recognizing the often-overlapping nature of these fields.

For each of the 23 translator-training programs included in our study, we conducted a detailed analysis of the course offerings related to translation technology. The following key information was systematically recorded for each course.

• •Course Title: This provided a preliminary understanding of the course focus and content. The title often indicates the primary area of study, such as 'Introduction to CAT Tools', 'Advanced Machine Translation Techniques', or 'Localization and Globalization'.
• •Main Targeted Skills: We identified the primary skills that each course aimed to develop in students. This involved analyzing the course descriptions and learning outcomes to understand the central competencies being taught. For instance, a course focusing primarily on CAT tools would be categorized under skills like using specific CAT software, managing translation memories, and handling terminology databases.
• •Secondary Skills Targeted: Recognizing the multidisciplinary nature of translation technology, we also noted any secondary skills that courses aimed to develop. These were identified through a detailed analysis of course syllabi, where we looked for additional skills that were not the main focus but were still a significant component of the course. For example, a course primarily on machine translation might also include elements of quality assurance or post-editing as secondary skills.

To better understand and contextualize our findings within the larger landscape of Arabic translation training, our study takes Al-Batineh and Bilali [6] as a point of departure to reveal developments in the adoption of technology-related courses by translation programs in the Arab world. Al-Batineh and Bilali conducted a comprehensive analysis encompassing a wide array of translation-related skills and competencies. Their study methodically assessed the overall alignment of translator training programs with market needs in the MENA region, considering all aspects of translation competencies, including but not limited to technological skills. Their study reported that, as of 2016, the region had eighteen courses on CAT tools, seven on MT, and just one on localization.

Our study's sampling strategy, while building upon the approach of Al-Batineh and Bilali [6], narrows its concentration specifically to technology-related skills. We analyze the demand for these skills in the translation market and how they are addressed within translator training programs. This focused approach allows for a more in-depth exploration of the technological aspects of translator training, examining how well these programs prepare graduates for the increasingly technology-centric demands of the translation industry. By concentrating solely on technology-related skills, both in terms of market requirements and training program curricula, our study offers a specialized analysis within the broader context of translator training alignment with industry needs, as examined by Al-Batineh and Bilali [6].

5. Findings

5.1. Analysis of job ads

As shown in Fig. 1, the quantitative analysis of 50 job ads revealed that 35 require skills related to CAT tools, while 13 specified a need for localization, which can involve translating content, adapting images and graphics, and ensuring the final product is culturally appropriate for the target audience. Two of the job ads required knowledge in MT and PE.

Fig. 1.

Technology-related skills required in job ads.

Proficiency in using CAT tools is evidently a widespread requirement, requiring mastery of managing and maintaining TM and TBs. Some job ads also required skills in designing language-specific style guides and defining segmentation rules. Some of the spotted skill patterns include the following.

• •Proficiency in CAT tools such as Trados and Memsource;
• •Managing TM, glossaries, and style guides;
• •Conducting linguistic quality assurance for Arabic content using proper tools;
• •Maintaining Arabic style guides and glossaries for different content types.

We also found demand for various types of localization skills, including website, app, and video game localization. Additionally, four job ads specifically required localization testing skills (see Fig. 2).

Fig. 2.

Localization-related skills required in job ads.

These findings indicate that companies seek individuals with expertise in adapting various types of digital content for Arabic, as well as those able to test the quality and functionality of localized products. Localization-related patterns in the job ads include the following.

• •Experience in localizing marketing and advertising content;
• •Ability to work with vendor resources to deliver localized content, handling high-priority, high-visibility content independently;
• •Familiarity with setting the tone of voice for a brand in Arabic;
• •Skills in fixing linguistic bugs and flagging internationalization issues to relevant product teams.

Arabic translation-related tasks are increasingly relying on technology, a trend aligned with the findings of previous research on technology adoption by the region's translation industry [6,7,23]. Translation programs need to stay up to date with the latest technologies and skills in demand, ensuring students are prepared for success in the job market. In this regard, Bowker [24] argues that many translator-training programs strongly emphasize practical skills and hands-on training, allowing students to gain experience working with real-world translation tasks and projects (p. 93). The following section overviews the various technology-related courses offered by translation programs in the focal Arab countries.

5.2. Analysis of technology-related courses in translation programs

Our analysis identified 36 courses covering different aspects of translation technologies such as CAT, localization, MT, and PE. Fig. 3 overviews the distribution of these courses.

Fig. 3.

Technology-related courses offered.

The number of CAT tools courses is higher in our sample than in the previous research conducted by Al-Batineh and Bilali [6] and Sayaheen [7]. Some universities offer these courses under different names, such as “Translation Technologies,” “Technology and Translation,” and “Computer Applications for Translators.” By analyzing course syllabi and descriptions, we found that these courses cover both CAT tools and other technology-related topics related to translation.

The analysis has also revealed that localization courses are offered by five institutions, one of them offers two courses, while MT is offered by seven. This demonstrates the efforts of training institutions to respond to the needs and demands of the translation industry, as previously recommended by Arab scholars. For instance, commenting on their job ads data, Al-Batineh and Bilali [6] pointed out that “jobs requiring knowledge of subject-field translation are seeking candidates with proficiency in … software localization” (p. 11). Sayaheen [7] reported a similar conclusion.

Al-Batineh and Bilali's 2016 [6] study provided a foundational understanding of the landscape of translator training programs in the Arab world, revealing the existence of only one localization course at that time. As mentioned earlier, their approach involved a comprehensive review of publicly available curricula across a broad range of translator training programs in the MENA region. This wide-angle snapshot was instrumental in identifying the general state of translator training, including a variety of skills and competencies beyond just the technological ones. In contrast, our study, conducted in 2023, adopts a more focused approach, specifically honing in on technology-related courses within translator training programs. This narrower lens allowed us to identify a significant increase in such offerings, with six localization courses now available. Fig. 4 illustrates this evolution, comparing the number of technology-related courses offered by Arab universities in 2023 versus the data reported by Al-Batineh and Bilali. Our methodology, while similar in using publicly available curricula, differs in its concentrated emphasis on the technological aspect of translator training, reflecting the growing importance and integration of technology in the field. This focused approach enables a more detailed tracking of changes and advancements in this specific area over the years, offering a more comprehensive understanding of how translator training programs are evolving to meet the technological demands of the contemporary translation market.

Fig. 4.

Number of technology-related courses reported by Al-Batineh and Bilali [6] and in this study (2023).

It seems that translation programs in the Arab world are responding to the technological changes taking place in the translation market in this digital era, as reflected by the increased number of technology-related courses. The need for such changes has been recommended by previous studies to help translation graduates meet language industry expectations, including considerable emphasis on technology. The following subsections provide a detailed analysis of these courses, including objectives and the main technology-related practical skills they cultivate.

5.2.1. Qualitative analysis of the three types of courses

5.2.1.1. Translation technologies courses

Our findings reveal that most translation-technology courses are geared toward developing students’ skills in three main areas: creation and management of TM, creation and management of TBs, and the use of corpora in translation practice (see Table 1).

Table 1.

Main technology-related skills fostered in translation technologies/CAT tools classes.

Course title	Main technology-related practical skills	Secondary technology-related practical skills
Translation technologies (22 courses)	1.Language technology tools focused on professional practice. 2.Create and manage translation memory 3.Create and manage termbases. 4.Translation environment tools 5.Use of corpora in translation practice	1.Machine translation (MT) and its application. 2.PE and MT 3.Web localization

These skills are vital for professionals operating within the translation industry, enabling them to effectively employ technology to facilitate and enhance their translation work. Moreover, the findings reported above reveal that proficiency in CAT tools and in managing TM and glossaries are specified as essential in most job ads. TM is utilized in the industry for storing and retrieving segments of previously translated text, which speeds up the translation task and saves time and effort. In this regard, “users in industry and international organizations usually claim a 25%–60% rise in productivity” when using a TM [25,26]. By contrast, TBs are used for storing and managing terminology, ensuring the consistent and accurate use of terms across translation projects. In addition to fostering skills in creating and managing TM and TBs, courses on CAT tools and translation technologies focus on secondary practical skills related to PE of MT outputs and web localization. A significant proportion (68%) of the analyzed job ads required prior knowledge of CAT tools. This highlights the importance of such tools in the translation market and underscores the significance of training institutions focused on developing student skills in this area. Institutions are thereby trying to adapt to the technological turn in translation and equip their students with the skills to meet current and future market demands. Notably, Arab translation students generally have a positive attitude toward the use of CAT tools and believe these are essential for efficient translation work [[27], [28], [29]]. This further emphasizes the need for institutions to focus on developing students’ CAT tool skills.

5.2.1.2. Software localization

Software localization (L10 N) is one current trend in the translation market. However, translator-training programs in the Arab world still place minimal emphasis on this area, due to the lack of trainers who possess both theoretical knowledge and practical experience in localization. Analysis of the content of localization courses offered in the region reveals attempts to foster a set of skills essential for future professionals working in the localization industry (see Table 2).

Table 2.

Main localization-related skills fostered in localization courses.

Course title	Main technology-related practical skills	Secondary technology-related practical skills
Software localization (6 courses)	1.Mobile app localization 2.Website localization 3.Cultural adaptation 4.Creating localization kits 5.Integrating localized assets into target apps 6.Advanced mobile app 7.Localization testing	1.Translation and localization management systems 2.Creation and management of translation memory 3.Creation and management of termbases

The courses offered (6 in total) provide training on mobile app localization, website localization, creating localization kits, integrating localized assets into target apps, and localization testing. Notably, only one course involves mobile app localization; the others focus mainly on web localization, with an introduction to computer software localization. Our syllabus analysis also reveals that courses utilize and highlight the importance of CAT tools and provide training on localization testing. As mentioned earlier, the job ads data reveal that localization skills are in high demand among Arab-world employers (featuring in 26% of job ads), with specific focuses on mobile app localization (15% of ads), website localization (15%), video game localization (23%), and localization testing (31%). While the localization courses offered in the Arab world largely align with localization market demands, they are offered by only three institutions in the region. This means that many translator trainees lack access to this valuable training.

Notably, none of the institutions offering localization courses includes video game localization in the curriculum. The Arab world hosts one of the world's most active gaming communities and is a big consumer of localized video games [30,31]. Current billion-dollar government-led initiatives target video game development in the Arab world. For example, the Saudi Wealth Fund's Savvy Games Group has allocated US$ 37.8 billion to invest in the video games sector by acquiring games studios and developing and exporting video games. This will create a massive market for video game localizers in Saudi Arabia and the Arab world. Given these trends, video game localization is both the present and future of the region's translation market. Academic institutions offering translation and localization training might want to start incorporating video game localization into their curricula, or to expand existing localization courses to include this area, thereby better preparing students for the growing demand for video game localizers in the Arab world. Another benefit would be establishing and maintaining competitiveness in an ever-evolving global market.

5.2.1.3. Machine translation

MT and PE have also emerged as trends in the translation market, and are now considered essential tools for modern translators, alongside other CAT tools such as TM. While some translators have chosen to specialize in MT and PE, others have been compelled to adopt these technologies due to their widespread adoption by translation agencies [9]. Consequently, MT and PE have become integral components of translation programs across the globe, including in the Arab world. Our analysis reveals that the MT courses offered by seven institutions focus on providing theoretical background to MT, including its historical development, types of MT systems, and limitations of MT. We also find that three practical aspects are provided in the courses including pre-editing, PE, and MT output evaluation (See Table 3). These practical skills would add to the trainees skillset; however, the analysis of the job ads data suggests that these skills may not be in high demand in the Arab world: of the 50 job ads analyzed, only two (6%) required knowledge in PE of MT outputs.

Table 3.

Main MT-related skills fostered in MT courses.

Course title	Main technology-related practical skills	Secondary technology-related practical skills
Machine translation (MT) (7 courses)	1.Pre-editing 2.Post-editing 3.Evaluation of MT output	Building customizable MT systems and working with real-world data

It is worth considering whether these courses should be revised or expanded to better align with market needs, as MT use in the translation industry remains controversial and dedicating a whole course to MT might not be viable. Instead, it may be a good solution to incorporate MT and PE as modules in translation technologies (CAT) courses. This approach has been observed in some institutions, where MT and PE are discussed within a broader CAT course. By exposing students to a range of technologies, educators can better prepare them for the diverse and evolving nature of the translation market. The job ads analysis findings also support this approach, as only 2 of the 50 job ads specifically required knowledge in PE of MT outputs. This suggests that broader focus on translation technologies may be more beneficial for students looking to enter the industry.

6. Discussion

The present study's findings highlight the growing significance of CAT tools within the translation industry in the Arab world. Several prior studies [32,33]; Aula.int, 2005) have underscored the importance of such skills in producing competent and employable translators who can thrive in the digital era. Our analysis of technology-related courses revealed that seven of the ten focal institutions offer courses in translation technology, which focus on enhancing students' skills in CAT and other technologies. This increasing alignment between the job market and translator-training programs is a positive trend in the field. In addition to dedicating a course in translator-training programs to CAT, technology should be integrated throughout the entire training process, rather than treated as a separate component of translation competence. Such integration is anticipated to influence all other aspects of a training program and ultimately enhance learners' professional profile [34].

The Arabic translation market places significant emphasis on localization tasks, encompassing a wide range of skills related to website localization, app localization, video game localization, and localization testing. Yet localization courses are offered by only a few institutions, and focus primarily on developing skills in mobile app localization, website localization, cultural adaptation, creating localization kits, integrating localized assets into target apps, and localization testing. In this regard [35], points out that

the Arabic-language market offers one of the greatest potentials in localization. The necessity to prepare translators to handle these challenges, however, is still not sufficiently addressed in translation training programs and academic curricula. (p.6)

Companies seek translators with localization skills as they need Arabic-language professionals with a skillset suitable for handling different kinds of localization tasks. The existing significance and anticipated growth of localization in the coming years cannot be overstated. However, the response of academic programs to this trend has been rather slow. Al-Batineh and Bilali [6] emphasize the crucial role of localizers in the Arab world, and underscore the future demand for these professionals. Only one institution currently offers specialized courses in localization, while another covers this topic in an elective component of a translation technologies course. To meet current and anticipated future trends in the translation industry, it is imperative for translator training programs to augment and expand their offerings. Aspiring localization professionals must acquire comprehensive understanding of the diverse localization tasks and develop the requisite skills to succeed in this dynamic, ever-evolving industry.

The data analysis of job ads also revealed that MT skills, specifically pre-editing, PE, and evaluation of MT output, are not in high demand in the Arab world. This corroborates the findings of Al-Batineh and Bilali [6], who similarly reported a limited demand for these skills. One possible explanation is the unfavorable attitude toward Arabic MT, which has thus far failed to produce fully automated, high-quality outputs that meet the expectations of Arab translators [36]. A recent market research report by Trados [37], a leading translation technology company, revealed a downward shift in the importance of MT among language service providers and corporates: having been the most crucial technology in 2016, MT is now ranked fourth (p.26). Notably, however, MT and PE are not necessarily secondary market trends in some languages, as reported by Öner Bulut [5] and Vasiļjevs et al. [38]. It is also crucial to acknowledge that attitudes toward MT and PE can differ within the Arab world. For instance, Alshehri and Alowedi [39] recently revealed that in-house translators in Saudi Arabia exhibit a positive attitude toward MT and PE, and would benefit from training in these areas. The utilization of MT and PE may vary depending on the language and market; further research is required to determine the most effective approach in each specific context.

7. Conclusion

This paper aimed to investigate the extent to which translator-training programs in the Arab world align with the technology-related skills and tasks required by the translation job market. The findings indicate that CAT tools proficiency is the most required technology-related skill, followed by localization and MT. Analysis of translation programs revealed their alignment with the Arab translation market's needs in fostering graduates' skills in CAT tools. However, we found misalignment in the number of courses offering localization and MT training. The limited number of localization courses in translation programs in the Arab world is misaligned with forecast translation market trends in the region. While more MT courses are available (relative to localization courses), demand for MT appears to be lower in the Arabic translation market. This indicates a need to reconsider the number of localization and MT courses to meet apparent market demand for these skills, according to this study's data and insights from prior studies such as Al-Batineh and Bilali [6].

Our findings also provide insights into the technology-related skills required by employers in the Arab world, highlighting an urgent need for comprehensive training in CAT tools. In this regard, translator-training programs would benefit from project-based teaching to train students using real-life, market-related tasks that mimic real-world translation tasks. Programs might also benefit from establishing industry partnerships to expose students to real-life utilization of CAT tools. Furthermore, our findings highlight a noticeable gap between the number of localization courses and market demand for localization skills. In this regard, translator-training programs need to expand their course offerings to include more localization courses, focused on industry trends such as adapting and localizing different types of digital content and applications, as well as localization testing. Regarding MT courses, we suggest a more integrated and balanced approach, such as incorporating MT and PE within other practice-based translation courses. This could help students understand PE and MT applications in the context of Arabic translation.

Our study demonstrates the importance of monitoring market trends and adapting curricula accordingly to ensure students are well-prepared for evolving demands of the industry. However, this paper provides only a snapshot of the translation market in the Arab world and does not consider in-house translation needs and required skills. Additionally, we did not classify the collected data by employment types to distinguish between translation service providers, freelance translation opportunities, and in-house translation roles. Furthermore, the collected job ads were not categorized by employment type, such as translation service providers, freelance prospects, or in-house positions, which is a notable limitation in delineating the specific technology skills pertinent to each sector. This oversight suggests an area for future research to explore, offering a more granular understanding of the technological aptitudes sought in diverse professional translation environments.

Future research could also extend the comparative framework by incorporating a cross-regional analysis that juxtaposes the training practices and technology market needs of the Arab world against those prevalent in Europe and North America. This examination would benefit from a longitudinal approach, considering how rapid advancements in translation technology affect skill requirements and pedagogical methods over time. Moreover, such studies could investigate the alignment of translator-training curricula with evolving market demands, identifying any disparities and proposing actionable strategies for curriculum enhancement. By broadening the scope to include diverse educational and market contexts, future research has the potential to uncover best practices and foster a more holistic approach to translator education that supports the industry's dynamic and technologically driven nature. Such comparative studies could also offer insights into the global mobility of translation professionals and how different regions are preparing the next generation of translators to meet the international standards of the ever-expanding translation services industry.

Funding

The research for this article was funded by the United Arab Emirates University, under the start-up grant Fund Number 12H029-3099-320202. The author would like to express his gratitude.

Data availability statement

Data will be made available on request.

CRediT authorship contribution statement

Mohammed Al-Batineh: Writing – review & editing, Writing – original draft, Resources, Project administration, Methodology, Funding acquisition, Conceptualization. Moza Al Tenaijy: Writing – original draft, Visualization, Formal analysis, Conceptualization.

Declaration of generative AI and AI-assisted technologies in the writing process

During the preparation of this work, the author(s) used ChatGPT-4 to improve language and readability ONLY. After using this tool, the author(s) reviewed and edited the content as needed and take(s) full responsibility for the content of the publication.

Declaration of competing interest

The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.

Appendix 1. Sample of job ads

Job 1: English - Arabic Translator - Full Time.

Localized Vision- Sheikh Zayed, Giza.

Job Details

Experience Needed:2 To 5 Years.

Career Level: Experienced (Non-Manager)

Education Level: Not Specified.

Salary: Confidential.

Skills And Tools: Translation, Writing, Editing, English, Localization, Arabic, CAT tools.

Job Description

• •Handle the translation/Revision assignments
• •Conducting periodic quality checks of translations produced LV external resources
• •Translate/Revise/and QA the translation samples provided to new, current and potential clients
• •Providing detailed feedback on client's queries and counter-feedback in case clients' feedback is disputable
• •Answering clients' queries in terms of regional and country-specific linguistic requirements
• •Ensuring that client's feedback and special requirements are applied properly
• •Sorting out any possible issues that may arise in the process of translation in terms of terminology, project background info and CAT tool functionality
• •Supplying references and ensuring correct delivery of translation output in the proper file formats and in accordance with the client's instructions
• •Evaluating in-house and external resources applying to work for LV
• •Conducting required research and development efforts to explore new translation tools and technologies that emerge on the market

Job Requirements

• •Has at least Bachelor Degree in translation is a must.
• •Has from 2 to 5 years of experience in the localization filed.[sic]
• •Has strong communication, organizational and interpersonal skills.
• •Has a sense of urgency: ability to juggle priorities, work under pressure, and meet tight deadlines.
• •Strong commitment to working in a team environment and demonstrated sense of valuing collaboration.
• •Be ready to do and pass a translation test.
• •Be comfortable to work in 6th of October or Sheikh Zayed city.

Job 2: Arabic Part-Time Linguistic QA Tester

Location: (Remote)

Hourly Rate: $ 20.00/hr + (Negotiable based on experience)

Hours: Part Time (Hours vary based on project need and demand)

Start date: TBD.

Please note that this work is part time depending on project need. Due to this, hours will vary and flexibility with a changing schedule is very important.

Requirements

• •Native-level fluency in Arabic (Linguistic competency in target language equal to the following: ILR Level 5 or CEF C2)
• •Excellent written/verbal communication in English (for bug reporting purposes)
• •Up-to-date awareness of current and common technical language usage in the target language
• •Strong practical knowledge of computers and mobile devices
• •Ability to follow written testing instructions in English
• •Localization QA experience is preferred
• •Knowledge of common technological terms in English and/or target language
• •Valid authorization to work in the US
• •Ability to work onsite in our Portland office
• •Flexibility with varying hours

Job 3: Arabic Speaking Game Tester (Remote work)

Company Name: Keywords Studios.

Company Location: Dublin, County Dublin, Ireland Remote.

Arabic Speaking Game Tester (Remote work) at Keywords Studios.

The Arabic Localization QA Tester will analyze in-game texts to validate grammar, syntax, spelling and proper location on a variety of different platforms to ensure compliance with all console and handheld manufacturers localized official terminologies. In addition, he/she will also review and perform exhaustive Arabic language tests to ensure text and audio respect the cultural aspects of a game's local edition remains in context and is consistent throughout.

The Arabic Localization QA Tester is responsible for testing, identifying, recording and suggesting fixes to potential bugs in video and computer games relating to language, implementation, user interface (UI) and compliance issues.

Please note This role will be remote and in order to be eligible you must be located in Dublin or surrounding areas as specific equipment will be delivered to new employees

• •Verify linguistic accuracy in the Arabic version of the in-game text and check for typographical, grammatical and punctuation errors.
• •Verify cosmetic integrity of in-game text and ensure that all text is correctly displayed.
• •Verify the contextual consistency of in-game text.
• •Assess cultural appropriateness and check politically sensitive content.
• •Verify the correct implementation of the localized text.
• •Ensure that the correct approved terminology is used throughout the game.
• •Verify the correct functionality, within the localized version of the game.
• •Verify testing results across all languages in test.
• •Maintain high level of focus throughout the project.
• •Identify, isolate, and document bugs clearly and concisely in a bug database.
• •Run test-cases and checklists.
• •Follow the documented processes at all stages of the testing process.
• •Verify that bugs have been fixed and implemented correctly.
• •File review/Correcting files Proof-read and correct translations.
• •Ensure that quality, accuracy and consistency is maintained throughout files/game/manual.
• •Translation work occasionally provide Arabic in-house translations.
• •Attend meetings with testing team, team lead and other interested parties, on a regular basis.
• •Communicate through the appropriate channels.
• •Provide daily status reports about the status of the project testing.
• •Support lead by taking ownership of side tasks, such as daily report, bug vetting, coaching of new team members.

Requirements

• •Excellent spelling and grammar in Arabic language.
• •Outstanding attention to detail.
• •Must be motivated and able to remain focused until project completion.
• •Reliable and punctual.
• •Excellent written, verbal and interpersonal communication skills in both English and Arabic.
• •The ability to write accurate, unambiguous and concise documentation in English and your native language.
• •Good PC knowledge and proficient knowledge of MS Office products is essential.
• •Must be a team worker.
• •Experience of Software Localization as a QA Tester is a definite advantage.
• •University Degree, equivalent qualification and/or relevant experience in related field an advantage.
• •Competent games player.
• •Basic understanding of the development cycle and constraints.
• •Flexible towards responsibilities and working hours.
• •Ability to cope under pressure and to work to tight deadlines.