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. 2024 Apr 23;10(3):e1445. doi: 10.1002/vms3.1445

Antimicrobial effects of laurel extract, laurel essential oil, zahter extract, and zahter essential oil on chicken wings contaminated with Salmonella Typhimurium

Ezgi Ayan Yilmaz 1, Halil Yalçin 1, Zübeyde Polat 1,✉
PMCID: PMC11037249  PMID: 38652025

Abstract

Background

This study aimed to evaluate the antimicrobial effects of zahter extract, zahter essential oil, laurel extract, and laurel essential oil on Salmonella Typhimurium inoculated on chicken wings.

Methods

A total of 10 groups, including eight study groups and two control groups were formed, consisting of zahter extract and zahter essential oil and laurel extract and laurel essential oil in different proportions. In the study, laurel extract at 6.4% and 12.8% concentrations, laurel essential oil at 0.2% and 0.4% concentrations, zahter extract at 0.2% and 0.4% concentrations, and zahter essential oil at 0.2% and 0.4% concentrations were used.

Results

The broth microdilution method was used to evaluate the antimicrobial activity of the extract and essential oils on the S. Typhimurium. Minimum inhibitory concentrations of the extracts and essential oils used in the study against S. Typhimurium were determined. The highest inhibitory effect on S. Typhimurium was observed in the 0.4% laurel essential oil group. It was determined that the inhibitory effect increased as the concentration of laurel essential oil increased. In addition, the antimicrobial activity of zahter essential oil is less inhibitory than the laurel extract, laurel essential oil, and zahter extract.

Conclusion

According to the results of this study, it has been revealed that extracts and essential oils obtained from zahter and laurel plants, which have been shown to be natural antimicrobial, can be used in foods as an alternative to chemical additives. To develop research results, the applicability of these extracts and essential oils in different foodstuffs should be examined using different ingredients and concentrations.

Keywords: antimicrobial activity, laurel, Salmonella Typhimurium, zahter

The study aimed to assess the antimicrobial effects of zahter and laurel extracts and essential oils on Salmonella Typhimurium in chicken wings. Various concentrations were tested, and the highest inhibitory effect was found with 0.4% laurel essential oil. Laurel essential oil demonstrated stronger antimicrobial activity compared to zahter essential oil and extract. The findings suggest the potential of these natural antimicrobials as alternatives to chemical additives in food, warranting further research across different food types and concentrations for practical application.

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1. INTRODUCTION

The global popularity of chicken meat has risen in recent years, leading to an increase in its consumption (Chouliara et al., 2006). Furthermore, chicken meat has a high biological value in fulfilling animal protein deficiency. It is also richer in protein, vitamins, and mineral values than red meat. However, due to its high water activity, high nutritional value, and appropriate pH range, it provides a suitable environment for developing foodborne pathogens and microorganisms that cause spoilage (Duc et al., 2018; Şahin et al., 2017). Microbial contamination represents a prevalent apprehension within the realm of food processing, concerning both industry stakeholders and consumers alike. Such contamination, often stemming from environmental influences, poses a significant challenge, particularly within poultry farming and slaughterhouse settings (Nannapaneni et al., 2008).

Salmonella and its various serotypes cause the most frequent foodborne illnesses worldwide (Laidlow et al., 2022). Salmonella Typhimurium is one of the prevalent serotypes linked to poultry contamination. It has multiple virulence factors that cause salmonellosis, characterized by inflammation, fever, and diarrhoea in the intestinal tract of the human body (Duc et al., 2018). Salmonella Typhimurium poses a significant public health concern for both developed and developing countries. For this reason, decontamination is needed to prevent and minimize the contamination of chicken meat with pathogenic and spoilage microorganisms (Şahin et al., 2017). Epidemiological evidence indicates a substantial global burden, with an estimated annual incidence of over 500,000 cases of invasive salmonellosis, with children under the age of 5 being disproportionately affected (Rama et al., 2022). Notably, excluding the typhoid subgroup, Salmonella is implicated in more than 78 million cases of food poisoning annually based on data spanning from 2007 to 2015, as reported by the World Health Organization (WHO, 2015). Salmonella species rank prominently among the causative agents of foodborne illnesses, accounting for 12% of cases, 24% of hospitalizations, and a striking 27% of fatalities (Van Cauteren et al., 2017).

The widespread use of chemical, physical, and biological methods in the food industry is increasing to eliminate foodborne bacteria, reduce bacterial load, and extend the shelf life of food products. However, there are still challenges in maintaining microbial safety in food matrices due to the limitations of these traditional methods such as affecting sensory quality, bacterial resistance, potential drug residue, high costs, and inefficiency. Consequently, the development of new antimicrobial agents is vital to prevent and control the growth of foodborne pathogens (Zhao et al., 2023).

Nowadays, the issue of food safety has become more remarkable. This is due to increasing awareness and concerns about the health effects of various food ingredients, especially chemical preservatives, and both consumers and manufacturers have begun to pay attention to this issue (Bora et al., 2004). For this reason, manufacturers have embarked on new searches in line with food safety management practices. In many studies, it is thought that the addition of natural resources (lactic acid bacteria, probiotics, bacteriocins, bacteriophages, essential oils, plant extracts) to food are effective alternatives in the fight against different types of foodborne diseases. (Rugji & Dincoğlu, 2022: Siddiqui et al, 2023).

It is well known that many plant species widely found in nature and suitable for human consumption have an inhibitory effect on pathogens due to the essential oils they contain (Akhtar et al., 2014). Therefore, natural antimycotics of plant origin have become ideal alternatives to commercial synthetic chemical preservatives to improve food quality and safety. Essential oils are often obtained as by‐products of a different processing and are widely used around the world (Velázquez‐Nuñez et al., 2013).

Plant extracts and essential oils have been used for centuries for the treatment of diseases. They have emerged as natural alternatives to chemical preservatives’ harmful effects and residues in foods (Konyalioğlu, 2001). Munekata et al. (2020), plant extracts and essential oils used to improve the sensory properties of food and extend its shelf life are among the decontaminants used on microorganisms.

Zahter plant (Thymbra spicata) is in the group of aromatic plants belonging to the Lamiaceae family (Elshibani et al., 2023). These perennial shrubs are found in many parts of the world, especially in the Mediterranean region. Dry and fresh leaves of this plant are widely used to flavour meat dishes, soups, and salads (Gedikoğlu et al., 2019). It has been reported that zahter plant provides antimicrobial and antioxidant properties, primarily due to the presence of chemical components such as thymol and carvacrol in its essential oils (Uysal et al., 2015) and the fact that its extracts are rich in phenolic acids (Ertürk et al., 2017).

Laurel leaf (Lauraceae nobilis) belongs to the Lauraceae family and is endemic to the Mediterranean Region. Laurel leaves are frequently used as a spice in Mediterranean cuisine and as a traditional medicine in treating infectious diseases. In general, it is reported that the main components of laurel leaf essential oil are 1,8‐cineol, linalool, and α‐terpinyl acetate (Siriken et al., 2018). It also contains phenolic compounds including epicatechin, procyanidin dimer, procyanidin trimer, flavonol, and flavone derivatives and a variety of volatile active compounds such as α‐pinene, ß‐pinene, myrcene, limonene, linalool, and methyl chavicol. All these compounds are known as antimicrobial (Yilmaz et al., 2013), antioxidant (Rafiq et al., 2016), anti‐cancer, and immunomodulatory (Siriken et al., 2018).

It is known that plant essential oils, which are known to have more than 2000 chemical components, are used either alone or in combination for many purposes, due to their physiological effects. For this purpose, it is aimed to determine the antibacterial activities of zahter (T. spicata) extract and essential oil, as well as laurel (L. nobilis) extract and essential oil on S. Typhimurium bacteria that cause spoilage in chicken meat.

2. MATERIALS AND METHODS

2.1. Materials

Zahter leaves were obtained from local herbalists in Alanya. The liquid laurel extract to be used in the study was obtained from Kimbiotek Kimyaevi Maddeler Sanayi Ticaret Anonim Şirketi (Türkiye). The laurel essential oil to be used in the study was obtained from Dropena Aromaterapi (Türkiye).

The chicken wings used in the study were obtained fresh from the markets offered for sale in Burdur in their original packages and stored at +4°C until they were used in the study. Salmonella Typhimurium (ATCC 14028) strain used in the experimental contamination of chicken wings was obtained from the Department of Food Hygiene and Technology at Burdur Mehmet Akif Ersoy University.

Xylose Lysine Deoxycholate agar (XLD Agar; Merck), Tryptic Soy Broth (TSB; Merck), Müller Hilton Agar (MHA; Merck), and Buffered Peptone Water (BPW; Biokar) were used in the study.

2.2. Method

2.2.1. Treatment groups

The preparation of the experimental groups was carried out aseptically. The study evaluated groups with or without S. Typhimurium as positive control group (K2) and negative control group (K1), respectively. A total of 10 study groups were formed with eight groups and two control groups in which different doses of zahter extract, zahter essential oil, laurel extract, and laurel essential oil were used. The study groups and the proportions of the substances used are given in Table 1.

TABLE 1.

Establishment of working groups.

Groups Amount of materials used (%) S. Typhimurium
K1 – –
K2 – +
LE1 6.4 +
LE2 12.8 +
LEoil‐1 0.2 +
LEoil‐2 0.4 +
ZE1 0.2 +
ZE2 0.4 +
ZEoil‐1 0.2 +
ZEoil‐2 0.4 +
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Abbreviations: K, control group; LE, laurel extract; LEoil, laurel essential oil; ZE, zahter extract; ZEoil, zahter essential oil.

2.2.2. Extraction of zahter

Fifty grams of zahter leaves were weighed and turned into powder. The sized sample was placed in a 500‐mL glass bottle, and 250‐mL of 80% aqueous ethanol (1:10 weight/volume ratio) was added. The prepared sample was shaken with an orbital shaker (Biosan PSU‐20I; Lithuania) for 24 h. At the end of this period, the extract was filtered into the flask using Whatman No.1 filter paper. At the end of the filtering process, the extract was subjected to evaporation for 16–24 h in a rotary evaporator (Heidolph Hei VAP Precision) set at 45°C. The resulting extract was then stored at +4°C until use. This extraction method was designed by modifying Gedikoğlu et al. (2019).

2.2.3. Gas chromatography/mass spectroscopy analysis of volatile compounds

The chemical compositions of the essential oils used in the study were determined by the Gas chromatography/mass spectroscopy (GC–MS) method (Dong et al., 2013). To determine the chemical compositions, 10‐mL samples of laurel oil were sent to the Bezmi Alem Vakif University Phytotherapy Training, Application and Research Center (BİTEM, İstanbul/Türkiye). Ten‐millilitre samples of zahter essential oil were sent to the Western Mediterranean Agricultural Research Institute (BATEM, Antalya/Türkiye). Component analyses of plant oils were carried out under the conditions given in Table 2.

TABLE 2.

Gas chromatography/mass spectroscopy (GC–MS) analysis conditions of laurel (L. nobilis) oil and zahter (T. spicata) oil.

Laurel oil Zahter oil
The system used Agilent 7890B GC Agilent 7890B GC
Column Agilent DB‐Wax (60 m × 0.25 mm × 0.25 µm) Agilent DB‐Wax (60 m × 0.25 mm × 0.25 µm)
Detector and injector temperature (°C) 220 250
Injection volume (µL) 1 1
Carrier gas Helium Helium
Carrier gas flow rate (mL/min) 1.5  0.8
Oven temperature program 70°C (15 min), 2°C/min, 180°C (5 min), 230°C (15 min) 60°C (10 min), 4°C/min, 220°C (10 min), 230°C (15 min)
Ion source temperature (°C) 230 230
Ionization mode Electron impact ionization Electron impact ionization
Interface temperature (°C) 250 250
Definitions Wiley 9‐NIST 11 Mass Spectral Database Wiley 9‐NIST 11 Mass Spectral Database
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2.2.4. Determination of antimicrobial activity of zahter and laurel extracts and essential oils by the broth microdilution method

The broth microdilution method was used to determine the minimum inhibitor concentrations (MICs) of the extracts and essential oils of zahter and laurel plants on S. Typhimurium (ATCC 14028). For this purpose, the method of Oke et al. (2009) was used. The MIC of the extract and essential oil samples used as antimicrobial agents on S. Typhimurium (ATCC 14028) was determined as mg/mL.

In the study, two different extracts, namely laurel extract and zahter extract, and two different essential oils, laurel essential oil and zahter essential oil, were used as antimicrobial agents. MICs were determined for three columns of laurel extract, three columns of laurel essential oil, three columns of zahter extract, and three columns of zahter essential oil on a 96‐well microplate. The antimicrobial activity of the substances used in the study was determined by the method of Sudagidan and Yemenicioğlu (2012).

2.2.5. Inoculum preparation

Thirty microlitres of S. Typhimurium (ATCC 14028) strain was added to 10 mL of TSB and incubated at 37°C for 18 h. At the end of the incubation period, the tubes were centrifuged at 5000 rpm for 5 min (Centrifuge 5810 R; Eppendorf), and the pellet and supernatant were separated. Pellets were dissolved in 10 mL of sterile 0.1% peptone water (PW), and then centrifugation was repeated. After the centrifugation, the supernatants were removed, the pellets were dissolved in 10 mL sterile PW again, and the inoculum was prepared (Dikici et al., 2013).

2.2.6. Contamination of pathogenic bacteria in chicken wings

Bacteria concentration was adjusted to 0.5 McFarland (1.2 × 108 colony‐forming unit [cfu]/mL) in 200 mL of TSB. Contamination was achieved by turning the chicken wings three times with the help of a sterile spatula.

2.2.7. Preparation of decontamination solution and procedure

Each decontamination solution was prepared in 100 mL according to the determined MIC value. A 1:1 ratio of dimethyl sulfoxide was used to disperse laurel essential oil and zahter essential oil homogeneously in the prepared solution.

Efforts were made to meticulously ensure that the wings procured for the investigation underwent no pre‐treatment or decontamination. Chicken wings were maintained at a temperature of +4°C until they were processed. The first and second groups were determined as the control group. The initiation of bacterial cultivation on the wings within control group 1 was conducted without the introduction of any contamination or decontamination procedures. Bacterial contamination was induced on the wings of the second control group via immersion, followed by removal utilizing a sterile spatula, and subsequent incubation for 15 min to facilitate bacterial adherence. The wings in the decontamination groups underwent identical contamination procedures and were subsequently immersed in the decontamination solution for a duration of 15 min. Following the completion of all procedures, the bacterial cultivation phase commenced.

2.2.8. Microbiological sampling

Samples were placed one by one in sterile bags for counting. After shaking with 25 mL of 0.1% BPW for 1 min, 1 mL of this liquid was sampled, serial dilutions were prepared, and planting was performed by the surface spreading method. XLD agar was used for Salmonella enumeration and incubated at 37°C for 24 h after contamination. Count results are expressed as cfu/mL (İlhak et al., 2018).

2.2.9. Statistical analysis

The study was carried out in three parallels, and the Minitab 19.1.1 (64‐bit) package program was used to evaluate the data. Initially, an analysis of variance (ANOVA) test was applied to the data, and then Duncan's multiple comparison test was applied to the parameters found statistically significant (p < 0.05) in the ANOVA test. Data are given as mean ± standard deviation.

3. RESULTS

3.1. Gas chromatography/mass spectroscopy

As a result of GC–MS analysis of zahter (T. spicata) essential oil, the content of 11 different chemical compounds was determined. Carvacrol (46.46%), γ‐terpinene (32.25%), p‐cemen (7.1%), β‐caryophyllene (3.43%), and α‐terpinene (3.38%) were identified as the primary components of zahter essential oil. The chemical composition of T. spicata essential oils is given in Table 3.

TABLE 3.

Chemical composition of T. spicata (zahter) essential oils.

Analysis results
No. Component name Component of amount (%) No. Component name Component of amount (%)
1 α‐Phellandrene 0.295 11 Linalool 1.217
2 α‐Pinene 4.301 12 δ‐Terpineol 0.346
3 Sabinene 9.478 13 4‐Terpineol 2.613
4 β‐Pinene 3.811 14 α‐Terpineol 1.582
5 Myrcene 1.003 15 δ‐Terpinyl acetate 1.117
6 α‐Terpinene 0.392 16 α‐Terpinyl acetate 12.361
7 Simen 1.505 17 Öjenol 0.314
8 1,8‐Cineole 57.001 18 Methylöjenol 0.634
9 γ‐Terpinene 0.942 19 Caryophyllene 0.335
10 Trans sabinene hydrate 0.275 20 Others 0.476
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The GC–MS analysis of laurel (L. nobilis) essential oil revealed that it contained 20 different chemical compounds. It was determined that the main components of L. nobilis essential oil were 1,8‐cineole (57.01%), α‐terpinyl acetate (12.361%), sabinene (9.478%), α‐pinene (4.301%). The chemical composition of L. nobilis essential oils is given in Table 4.

TABLE 4.

Chemical composition of L. nobilis (laurel) essential oils.

Analysis results
No. Component name Component of amount (%) No. Component name Component of amount (%)
1 α‐Pinene 0.71 7 1‐Octen‐3‐ol 0.28
2 α‐Thujene 2.12 8 β‐Caryophyllene 3.43
3 β‐Myrcene 2.17 9 Timol 1.89
4 α‐Terpinene 3.38 10 Carvacrol 46.46
5 γ‐Terpinene 32.25 11 Others 0.21
6 p‐Simen 7.10
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3.2. Determination of antimicrobial activity (MIC)

MIC values were determined as 64 mg/mL for laurel extract, 0.2 µL/mL for laurel essential oil, 2 mg/mL for zahter extract, and 0.2 µL/mL for zahter essential oil.

3.3. pH values of decontamination solutions

The lowest pH value in the decontamination solutions of the extract and essential oil samples used was 4.62 in the LEoil‐2 group, and the highest pH value was 6.22 in the ZEoil‐1 group. The pH values of the solutions were determined as ZEoil‐1 (6.22)>ZEoil‐2 (6.19)>LE1 (5.81)>ZE1 (5.64)>LE2 (5.45)>ZE2 (5.19)>LEoil‐1 (5.18)>LEoil‐2 (4.62).

3.4. Microbiological results of the decontamination solution (waste)

The presence of S. Typhimurium in waste decontamination fluids after decontamination was also investigated. The lowest Salmonella presence was detected in the ZEoil‐1 (<1 log cfu/mL) and ZEoil‐2 groups (<1 log cfu/mL). It was found to be 1.82 ± 0.10 log cfu/mL in the DE1 group, 1.96 ± 0.11 log cfu/mL in the ZE2 group, and 2.52 ± 0.12 log cfu/mL in the ZE1 group. The DE2, LEoil‐1, and Leoil‐2 groups were not statistically different, and the amount of Salmonella in these groups ranged from 3.19 to 3.23 log cfu/mL (p > 0.05). It was revealed that ZEoil groups were more effective than all other groups.

3.5. Effect of laurel extract, laurel essential oil, zahter extract, and zahter essential oil on S. Typhimurium (ATCC 14028)

The effect of the extracts and essential oils on the growth of S. Typhimurium is shown in Table 5. The effect of each extract and essential oil used in the study on S. Typhimurium was statistically significant (p < 0.05).

TABLE 5.

Results of decontamination applied to S. Typhimurium.

Groups Count results (log10 cfu/mL)
K2 4.54 ± 0.20A
LE1 2.61 ± 0.23F
LE2 2.95 ± 0.13E
LEoil‐1 3.75 ± 0.19C
LEoil‐2 2.36 ± 0.08G
ZE1 3.01 ± 0.08E
ZE2 3.23 ± 0.15D
ZEoil‐1 3.83 ± 0.18C
ZEoil‐2 4.29 ± 0.09B
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Note: The difference between the means with different uppercase letters is statistically significant (p < 0.05).

Abbreviations: cfu, colony‐forming unit; LE, laurel extract; LEoil, laurel essential oil; ZE, zahter extract; ZEoil, zahter essential oil.

The lowest decrease in S. Typhimurium was determined as 0.25 log cfu/mL in the ZEoil‐2 group (p < 0.05). In the study, the highest decrease in S. Typhimurium was determined as 2.18 log cfu/mL in the LEoil‐2 group (p < 0.05). A statistically significant decrease was found in all groups compared to the K2 group. When the extracts of both plants (LE1, LE2, ZE1, and ZE2) used in the groups were compared in terms of inhibitory effects, it was determined that the inhibitory effect of bay laurel extract on S. Typhimurium was higher than that of thyme extract. However, it was determined that low doses were more effective in the extracts of both plants, and increasing the dose did not increase the inhibition effect. The inhibition efficiency between the extracts was determined as LE1(1.93%)>LE2(1.59%)>ZE1(1.53%)>ZE2(1.31%) (p < 0.05). Likewise, when the essential oils obtained from both plants used in the groups (LEoil‐1, LEoil‐2, ZEoil‐1, and ZEoil‐2) were compared, it was determined that the essential oil of the bay plant had a more inhibitory effect on S. Typhimurium (p < 0.05). It was determined that the inhibition efficiency did not increase as the dose increased in the Zeoil‐containing groups and that the ZEoil‐1 group was more effective than the ZEoil‐2 group. When the groups containing Leoil were compared, it was found that increasing the dose increased the inhibition, and the most effective group was LEoil‐2.

4. DISCUSSION

Salmonella Typhimurium is one of the important risk factors that can be found in chicken meat and threatens public health. Foodborne diseases greatly threaten consumers’ health and the economy of developed/developing countries. In recent studies, plant extracts and essential oils, which are used to improve the sensory properties of food and extend its shelf life, are among the decontaminants used on microorganisms (Munekata et al., 2020). Essential oils obtained from plants are natural sources used to increase food safety and extend the shelf life of poultry meat (Irokanulo et al., 2021; Marzlan et al., 2021). In line with this information, the inhibitory effects of zahter and laurel extracts and essential oils on S. Typhimurium in chicken wings were investigated.

The results of the GC–MS analysis showed that laurel essential oil used in the study contained 1,8‐cineole (57%), α‐pinene (4.30%), and β‐pinene (3.81%). Eliuz et al. (2017) reported that the chemical components of laurel essential oil are 1,8‐cineole (29.75%), camphor (9.85%), α‐pinene (8.02%), borneol (6.06%), α‐terpineol (3.99%), camphene (3.32%), and β‐pinene (3.24%). Yilmaz et al. (2013) identified 27 components representing 96.6% of laurel leaf essential oil. The parent compounds identified are 1,8‐cineol (51.8%), α‐terpinyl acetate (11.2%), and sabinene (10.1%). The basic components of laurel essential oil used in the studies are similar to the essential oil components in the present study. The 1,8‐cineole component was found to be the highest in both studies. Considering the structure of 1,8‐cineole, it is hypothesized that this cyclic ether monoterpene may have an antibacterial mechanism of action similar to that proposed for thymol and menthol. These lipophilic compounds have a detectable solubility in water and can migrate through the aqueous extracellular environment and interact with membrane lipids, causing changes in membrane permeability and leakage of intracellular materials. In addition, the transfer of monoterpenes to bacteria and their interaction with intracellular structures cannot be ignored (Kifer et al., 2016). Also, it is estimated that the difference between the components of the essential oil compositions determined in the studies may vary depending on the harvesting season, extraction efficiency, distillation technique, and storage conditions.

In the GC–MS analysis of zahter essential oil used in the study, it was determined that the most abundant phenolic component consisted of carvacrol with a ratio of 46.46%. Unlu et al. (2009), on the other hand, reported that the components of zahter essential oil are 60.39% carvacrol, 12.95% γ‐terpinene, 9.61% p‐cymene, 2.35% β‐myrcene, and 2.22% trans‐caryophyllene. In another study by Önel (2015), the main components of zahter essential oil used were carvacrol (71.62%), p‐cemen (9.03%), γ‐terpinene (5.83%), 1‐monolinoleoy glyceroltrimethylsilylether (4.75%), and caryophyllene (1.91%). The essential oil composition obtained in our study is similar to the essential oil components used in similar studies. It was also determined that it contains the highest rate of carvacrol as a phenolic component. Carvacrol generally attracts attention with its antimicrobial properties. Carvacrol exhibits antimicrobial activity on the biological membranes of bacteria. It exerts its action by rapidly depleting intracellular adenosine triphosphate (ATP) pool via reducing ATP synthesis and increasing ATP hydrolysis. Reduction of transmembrane electric potential, which is the driving force of ATP synthesis, enhances proton permeability of the membrane (Can Baser, 2008).

When looking at the pH values of decontamination solutions, it was found that the pH value decreased as the amount of substance increased in both the extracts and oils of laurel and zahter. Bati et al. (2021) reported that the pH value of the 100% laurel extract group was 5.36, and the pH value of the 100% lemon peel extract group was 5.07. In our study, it was found that the pH values of the groups using laurel extract were similar to the pH values in the study. The pH values of the essential oil groups used in 0.2% and 0.4% of the same plant were determined as 5.18 and 4.62, respectively. It was determined that the amount of inhibition on S. Typhimurium was higher in laurel essential oil, which was used at a rate of 0.4%, compared to the other groups.

The MIC values used in the study were 64 mg/mL for laurel extract and 0.2 µL/mL for laurel essential oil. Pattabanoğlu (2018) studied the antimicrobial activities of essential oils obtained from L. nobilis and Cistus laurifolius, and the authors found the MIC value of laurel essential oil on S. Typhimurium to be 0.781 µg/mL. Considering the results of the current study, the data of the abovementioned study show similarity. Tomar et al. (2020) obtained the essential oil from L. nobilis L. leaves by the hydrodistillation method. The MIC value of L. nobilis L. essential oil for S. pullorum has been reported to be 0.37 ± 0.04 mg/mL. Yilmaz et al. (2013) investigated the antimicrobial and antioxidant activity of laurel essential oil and found the MIC value of laurel essential oil on S. Enteriditis to be 250 µL/mL. In another study investigating the antioxidant and antibacterial activity of laurel essential oil and extracts, the MIC value of laurel essential oil on S. Typhimurium was found to be 9 mg/mL, while an antimicrobial effect of laurel extract on S. Typhimurium was not detected (Ramos et al., 2012). Da Silveira et al. (2014) determined the MIC values of laurel essential oil as 2.5 g/L for S. Typhimurium. This result does not agree with our results. It is assumed that these differences may be due to the method of obtaining the oil, the region where the laurel is grown, or the time of harvest.

Erbaşcivan (2020) investigated the antimicrobial activity of laurel essential oil applied to chicken breast meat. The author determined that this substance gave a zone diameter of 12.51 ± 0.91 mm against S. Typhimurium (ATCC 14028) in the disc diffusion method. In the study, to determine the effectiveness of laurel essential oil on S. Typhimurium, unlike our study, antimicrobial activity was determined by the disc diffusion method. Both studies reveal that laurel essential oil has an antimicrobial effect against S. Typhimurium.

Bati et al. (2021) reported that 100% laurel extract and 100% lemon peel extract reduced the total number of bacteria by 1.84 and 1.70 log cfu/g, respectively. Dadalioğlu and Evrendilek (2004) compared the effectiveness of different amounts of essential oils from fennel, laurel, thyme, and lavender plants on food pathogens. In their studies, the most effective essential oil against S. Typhimurium was thyme, and the order was determined as thyme>fennel>laurel>lavender.

The MIC values used in the study were 2 mg/mL for zahter extract and 0.2 µL/mL for zahter essential oil. Marković et al. (2011) investigated the antimicrobial effects of zahter essential oil on S. Typhimurium (ATCC 13311). As a result, it was revealed that the MIC value of zahter essential oil for S. Typhimurium (ATCC 13311) was 0.30 µg/mL. It was revealed that the results obtained in the study compared to this study were similar. Askun et al. (2009) found the MIC value of zahter extract on S. Typhimurium to be 640 µL/mL in a study investigating the antimicrobial activity of zahter. The results of the study do not match with the data obtained. The reason for this is due to the extraction method and the different region where the plant was collected.

Çinar et al. (2018) investigated the antimicrobial effects of zahter extract obtained from the leaves of the zahter plant by the classical extraction method against S. Typhimurium using the disc diffusion method. The inhibition zones of S. Typhimurium bacteria against the 10−1, 10−2, and 10−3 dilutions of zahter extract were indicated as 26.3, 20.7, and 10 mm, respectively. Contrary to this study, it was determined that the increase in the amount of extract used in the study had a positive effect on the inhibition of S. Typhimurium bacteria on chicken wings.

The present study indicated that the extracts and essential oils of laurel and zahter plant species show antimicrobial activity against S. Typhimurium, a foodborne pathogen inoculated on chicken wings with the active components they contain. In addition, the extracts, essential oils of zahter, and laurel plants were evaluated in this study, and the antimicrobial activity of laurel essential oil was found to be more effective than that of other extracts and essential oils. Considering the negative attitude of consumers towards artificial or chemical additives used in the preparation of foods, the antimicrobial activity of extracts and essential oils obtained from zahter and laurel spices may have a remarkable potential feature.

The results obtained in this study may help identify more effective plant‐based and organic‐derived compounds to sustainably combat S. Typhimurium in poultry products.

AUTHOR CONTRIBUTIONS

The authors jointly contributed to the experimental phase and writing of the article.

CONFLICT OF INTEREST STATEMENT

The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

5.

PEER REVIEW

The peer review history for this article is available at https://publons.com/publon/10.1002/vms3.1445.

ETHICS STATEMENT

Authors certify that the journal's ethical policies are followed, as stated on the journal's author guidelines page. This study did not use experimental animals when obtaining original research data.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The authors would like to thank Asım KART for helping to trasnlate the article into English.

Yilmaz, E. A. , Yalçin, H. , & Polat, Z. (2024). Antimicrobial effects of laurel extract, laurel essential oil, zahter extract, and zahter essential oil on chicken wings contaminated with Salmonella Typhimurium. Veterinary Medicine and Science, 10, e1445. 10.1002/vms3.1445

DATA AVAILABILITY STATEMENT

The data that support the findings of this study are available from the corresponding author upon reasonable request.

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Associated Data

This section collects any data citations, data availability statements, or supplementary materials included in this article.

Data Availability Statement

The data that support the findings of this study are available from the corresponding author upon reasonable request.

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