Abstract
胸闷变异性哮喘(CTVA)是以胸闷为唯一或主要表现的不典型哮喘。胸闷的潜在感受器是支气管C纤维或快适应受体,神经冲动通过迷走神经上传,神经中枢可能在大脑皮质中的几个不同区域。胸闷与感知能力有关,胸闷者可能对肺功能微小的改变感知能力更强,但这种感知能力与呼吸肌活动、肺过度充气状态以及呼吸系统机械负荷无关。CTVA患者的气道炎症、肺通气功能障碍尤其是小气道功能障碍以及气道高反应性可能是产生胸闷的原因。CTVA患者易合并焦虑症和抑郁症,焦虑症和抑郁症与呼吸困难有相似的中枢神经处理通路,提示CTVA的发病存在神经生理学基础。本文从胸闷症状的识别及产生机制出发,结合CTVA的气道炎症、通气功能障碍、气道高反应性及精神心理因素等特点及其导致胸闷的机制研究进展,探讨CTVA的发病机制。
Keywords: 胸闷, 胸闷变异性哮喘, 感知, 精神心理, 气道炎症, 发病机制, 综述
Abstract
Chest tightness variant asthma (CTVA) is an atypical form of asthma with chest tightness as the sole or predominant symptom. The underlying receptors for chest tightness are bronchial C-fibers or rapidly adapting receptors. The nerve impulses are transmitted via the vagus nerve and processed in different regions of the cerebral cortex. Chest tightness is associated with sensory perception, and CTVA patients may have heightened ability to detect subtle changes in lung function, but such sensory perception is unrelated to respiratory muscle activity, lung hyperinflation, or mechanical loading of the respiratory system. Airway inflammation, pulmonary ventilation dysfunction (especially involving small airways), and airway hyperresponsiveness may underlie the sensation of chest tightness. CTVA patients are prone to comorbid anxiety and depression, which share similar central nervous system processing pathways with dyspnea, suggesting a possible neurological basis for the development of CTVA. This article examines the recognition and mechanisms of chest tightness, and explores the pathogenesis of CTVA, focusing on its association with airway inflammation, ventilation dysfunction, airway hyperresponsiveness, and psychosocial factors.
Keywords: Chest tightness, Chest tightness variant asthma, Perception, Psychosis, Airway inflammation, Mechanism, Review
胸闷是一种主观感受,往往伴有不愉快的体验。临床上很多主诉为“胸闷”的患者由于胸闷症状长期得不到诊断和治疗,最终出现明确的精神心理问题[1-2]。小样本研究发现有22.4%的成人胸闷患者(呼吸科就诊)及61.7%的儿童胸闷患者最终会被诊断为CTVA,并且从抗哮喘治疗中获益[3-4]。这种以胸闷为特点的不典型哮喘于2013年在国际上首次提出并正式命名后,引起学术界的高度重视[5-12]。本文从胸闷这一症状的识别及产生机制出发(包括神经传导及感知机制),进一步探讨CTVA的气道炎症、通气功能障碍、气道高反应性、精神心理因素特点及导致胸闷的机制,以期为临床诊疗提供一定的依据。
1. 胸闷症状的识别及发生机制
“闷”自古就被用以形容病症,在马王堆汉墓帛书、上博楚简、《素问》、《灵枢》、《甲乙经》、《诸病源候论》中均有记载[13-15]。胸闷患者就诊时往往将这种不通畅的主观感受描述为:“胸闷”、“胸部紧缩感”、“胸部呈压迫感”、“胸口憋闷”、“胸口像被石头压着”、“总喜耸肩深呼吸”、“呼吸不畅”、“气不够用”、“胸部发闷、窒息感”、“呼吸闭塞感”、“一口气总上不来”、“只能透半口气”、“胸口好像一口气堵着”、“气急”等[1-2, 16]。笔者在临床工作中注意到,一部分表述为“气急”的患者不存在明显的呼吸频率增快,只是用“气急”来描述“胸闷”。
在现代医学呼吸系统疾病诊断学中,胸闷属于“呼吸困难”的范畴[17-18]。呼吸困难有感觉和情感两个维度[17-19]。其中,感觉维度包括三种体验:空气不足(提示肺泡通气不足,与高碳酸血症、低氧和容量限制有关)、呼吸费力(提示呼吸肌活动增加,与阻力负荷和弹性负荷有关)及胸闷[17];而情感维度强调其对情绪影响的作用[17-19]。
胸闷存在特定的神经传导通路。支气管C纤维和快适应受体是胸闷的潜在感受器,这些感受器可以感受气道炎症[20]、气道壁水肿或平滑肌收缩[17-18, 21-23]。胸闷的传入冲动通过迷走神经上传[17]。研究发现,所有受试者在气道麻醉后,均报告组胺介导的胸闷感觉消失,但与负荷相关的呼吸困难却没有减轻[24]。目前关于胸闷中枢神经系统机制研究还非常有限,可参考呼吸困难的中枢神经系统机制:传入活动在脑干传递并投射到丘脑区,激活了大脑皮质中的几个不同区域,包括右前岛叶、小脑蚓部、杏仁核、前扣带回皮质和后扣带回皮质[18, 25]。
胸闷与感知能力有关,这种感知的能力因人而异,部分人可能对肺功能微小的改变感知能力更强[26]。Salome等[26]观察了一般人群对气道狭窄的感知能力,结果697名成人完成了调查问卷及接受支气管激发试验(组胺诱导)。根据受试者对组胺的反应将其分为四个组:无症状(喘息或胸闷)无AHR、有症状无AHR、无症状有AHR、有症状有AHR,并在完成激发试验后对受试者进行Borg评分。超过一半的有症状无AHR的受试者在支气管激发试验过程中感受到胸闷,胸闷且无AHR者与有AHR者相比FEV1下降幅度较小,Salome等[26]认为胸闷且无AHR者可能对肺功能微小的改变感知能力更强。
胸闷的感知可能与呼吸肌活动、肺过度充气以及呼吸系统机械负荷无关。Binks等[27]发现乙酰甲胆碱诱导的支气管收缩可增加患者胸闷和呼吸费力感,而机械通气可显著减小患者感知到的呼吸费力程度,但不能缓解胸闷,因此认为胸闷感与呼吸肌活动无关。Moy等[28]发现受试者在乙酰甲胆碱诱导的支气管收缩期间体验到胸闷感(92%);而在承受外部阻力性负荷时,受试者基本无胸闷感(3%),但感到呼吸费力。两组的功能残气量无明显区别,胸闷发生在明显的过度充气之前(体积增加<0.5 L)。说明胸闷可能是与肺过度充气时或呼吸系统机械负荷增加时产生的感觉不同的独特感觉。
2. 胸闷变异性哮喘患者气道炎症导致胸闷的机制
CTVA患者存在气道炎症,但这些炎症类型目前还没有统一认识。Shen等[5]的研究发现CTVA患者气道病理标本中存在嗜酸性粒细胞浸润,Cao等[29]发现CTVA患者诱导痰嗜酸性粒细胞较健康对照组升高,朱本洪等[30]发现CTVA患者嗜酸粒细胞阳离子蛋白较对照组明显升高,CTVA患者呼出气一氧化氮水平也升高[29, 31-33]。以上研究均提示CTVA患者存在嗜酸性粒细胞炎症。而Taniguchi等[34]只观察到部分CTVA患者气道病理标本嗜酸性粒细胞增高,与对照组比较差异无统计学意义;并且CTVA患者气道存在淋巴细胞和巨噬细胞的浸润。Taniguchi等[35]将CTVA患者进一步分为吸入性糖皮质激素或联合短效β2受体激动剂治疗有效的患者,以及对上述两药联合治疗不敏感,需要联合白三烯受体拮抗剂、抗组胺药或其他抗哮喘药治疗有效的患者。结果显示后者部分对吸入激素无效,需要双倍剂量的白三烯受体拮抗剂才能控制症状,因此后者发病可能是由涉及白三烯的机制引起的。
有研究进一步观察了CTVA患者与典型哮喘患者之间嗜酸性粒细胞气道炎症的差异。Cao等[29]发现CTVA患者诱导痰嗜酸性粒细胞与典型哮喘患者并无明显差异。而Taniguchi等[34]发现CTVA患者诱导痰嗜酸性粒细胞明显低于典型哮喘患者。两者之间差异缘于不同研究对患者的筛选标准不同:前者的研究对象需满足可变气流受限的客观检查阳性;而后者的研究对象是对支气管舒张剂治疗有效的胸闷患者,其中可能包括一部分可变气流受限检查阴性的患者。
气道炎症是CTVA患者感受到胸闷的重要原因[17-18]。Marks等[36]发现甲胆碱、代谢亚硫酸和AMP刺激会产生胸闷,其中甲胆碱直接作用于平滑肌产生支气管收缩,AMP引起肥大细胞脱颗粒释放组胺产生胸闷,代谢亚硫酸通过产生二氧化硫刺激气道受体产生胸闷。在支气管收缩程度一致的情况下,AMP和代谢亚硫酸导致更大程度的胸闷感。可见,气道炎症和随后气道受体的激活产生的胸闷感可能比支气管收缩所致胸闷感更强[36]。
3. 胸闷变异性哮喘患者气道功能障碍、气道高反应性导致胸闷的机制
CTVA患者存在气道功能障碍。CTVA患者中心气道活检标本和外周气道活检标本细胞数无明显差异[34],提示患者大气道与小气道炎症程度可能无明显差别。而研究发现大气道与小气道的功能障碍程度存在差异。CTVA成人患者与健康对照组大气道功能无明显差异,而小气道功能明显下降[3, 37]。与典型哮喘患者比较,CTVA成人患者小气道功能下降的程度以中重度下降为主:CTVA患者中小气道中重度受损者(15/30,50.0%)比例高于典型哮喘患者中小气道中重度受损者(15/56,26.8%)[31]。CTVA患儿与健康对照组肺通气功能障碍的差异主要存在于小气道而非大气道[4, 32, 38-39]。CTVA患儿与典型哮喘患儿对比研究结果存在差异。李沛珊等[40]发现CTVA患儿大气道功能指标高于典型哮喘患儿,小气道功能指标低于典型哮喘患儿;刘芬等[33]发现CTVA患儿大气道功能指标FEV1%(103.3%)高于典型哮喘患儿(94.9%)和咳嗽变异性哮喘患儿(94.2%),CTVA患儿小气道重度下降比例为14%(6/42),与咳嗽变异性哮喘患儿类似18%(3/17),均低于典型哮喘患儿37%(18/48)。宋欣等[32]发现CTVA组与典型哮喘组大气道功能下降程度和小气道重度下降程度均无明显差异。
CTVA患者肺通气功能障碍尤其是小气道功能障碍很可能是产生胸闷的原因,支气管收缩可产生胸闷感[36]。Moy等[28]认为胸闷感在乙酰胆碱诱导的支气管收缩早期即可出现,胸闷感先于显著的支气管收缩。胸闷症状的缓解可能与FEV1改善不同步[26, 41]。Bao等[42]的研究发现,哮喘患者中胸闷者与非胸闷者相比,小气道功能指标下降的程度更明显。CTVA患者可能对肺功能微小的改变感受能力更强[26]。以上研究说明,在FEV1产生变化之前,很可能是小气道功能出现障碍,这种微小的变化即可以被感知进而引发胸闷。
CTVA患者的气道高反应性可能是产生胸闷的原因。部分CTVA患者激发试验过程中出现剧烈的胸闷反应甚至终止试验[34]。与典型哮喘相比,CTVA患者的气道高反应性别具特点。CTVA患者支气管激发试验PD20‑FEV1明显高于典型哮喘患者[32-33, 35]。CTVA患者的气道高反应性多以极轻度或轻度升高为主,而典型哮喘患者气道高反应性以中度升高为主[32]。气道高反应性是CTVA的重要特征[2],因此《胸闷变异性哮喘诊治中国专家共识》中建议CTVA的诊断标准需满足可变气流受限的客观检查[1]。
4. 胸闷变异性哮喘患者精神心理因素导致胸闷的机制
CTVA的发病可能与精神心理因素有关。胸闷是焦虑症和抑郁症的重要躯体症状,是精神心理障碍就诊的第四大原因[43-46]。胸闷可能激活大脑皮质的特定区域如中右前岛叶、小脑蚓部、杏仁核、前扣带回皮质和后扣带回等区域[18, 47]。同样的区域也可以被其他不愉快的感觉激活:如呼吸困难的不愉快感可能在右侧前岛叶和杏仁核中进行处理,疼痛刺激会产生强烈的岛叶激活,右侧后扣带回皮质可能与情感维度有关[18, 48-49]。有研究发现杏仁核功能与焦虑症有关[50-52],扣带回功能与抑郁症有关[53-54],说明胸闷与焦虑症和抑郁症有相似的中枢神经处理通路。提示CTVA的发病与精神心理因素有关,相关神经处理通路机制可能是CTVA患者合并焦虑症和抑郁症的重要生理基础。34%~42%CTVA患者合并焦虑症,25%CTVA患者合并抑郁症[5, 11],有效治疗后的CTVA患者焦虑自评量表评分明显改善[55]。哮喘患者的焦虑和抑郁程度与哮喘控制水平相关[56]。有研究发现哮喘导致的焦虑和抑郁程度改善与哮喘症状未控制、生活质量下降有关,但与哮喘患者肺功能改变无显著相关性,说明哮喘患者的主观症状对焦虑和抑郁程度的影响大于肺功能改变对焦虑和抑郁程度的影响[57-58]。
CTVA的发病与精神心理因素可能存在双向关系,CTVA患者易合并精神心理障碍,精神心理因素也可能导致CTVA的发病。在哮喘合并焦虑症的患者中,52%的患者焦虑症先于哮喘发生。抑郁症患者与健康对照者相比发生哮喘的风险明显升高[59-60]。焦虑症和抑郁症可能通过影响下丘脑-垂体-肾上腺轴及膈肌功能导致哮喘发作[57, 61-62]。与焦虑症和抑郁症有关的前扣带皮层和脑岛的活动可导致哮喘患者炎症加重和气道阻塞[63]。看痛苦电影片段带来的负情感刺激可激活扣带回前部和中部并引起支气管收缩而导致哮喘发作[64]。对呼吸困难的预期可能激活背内侧前额叶皮质、前扣带皮质吻侧、后扣带皮质等区域导致呼吸困难[65]。说明精神心理因素可诱发哮喘发作。CTVA患者与典型哮喘患者焦虑自评量表和抑郁自评量表评分无明显差异,CTVA很可能与典型哮喘有相同的精神心理机制[29],因此精神心理因素也可能导致CTVA的发病。
5. 结语
综上所述,CTVA患者的气道炎症、通气功能障碍、气道高反应性及精神心理因素等均可能参与CTVA的发病,这些因素通过特定神经传导通路及感知机制使患者体验到胸闷的感觉。目前关于CTVA发病机制的直接研究还不够深入。对于具体的分子机制和信号通路涉及较少,且在神经生理、精神心理等领域也缺乏进一步探讨。作为一种不典型哮喘,CTVA与典型哮喘的发病机制有何异同?为什么CTVA患者未出现典型哮喘的喘息症状?这种表型差异是否与神经生理等因素有关?这些均是亟待解决的重要问题。相关研究结果有望成为CTVA针对性治疗的潜在靶点,从而为临床实践提供更多的理论依据。
Acknowledgments
研究得到国家自然科学基金(81930003,81700040)、浙江省自然科学基金(LY22H010004)、浙江大学医学院附属第二医院多中心RCT项目(RCT-2023-006A)支持. 颜伏归、华雯、张超、杜旭菲参与了文章思路讨论;姚琛、黄佳杞、吕柏辉、王月珏参与了资料收集整理
Acknowledgments
This work was supported by the National Natural Science Foundation of China (81930003, 81700040), Natural Science Foundation of Zhejiang Province (LY22H010004) and the Multi-center RCT Project of the Second Affiliated Hospital of Zhejiang University School of Medicine (RCT-2023-006A). YAN Fugui, HUA Wen, ZHANG Chao, and DU Xufei participated in the discussion of the article ideas; YAO Chen, HUANG Jiaqi, LYU Baihui, and WANG Yuejue participated in the collection and organization of data
[缩略语]
胸闷变异性哮喘(chest tightness variant asthma,CTVA);气道高反应性(airway hyperresponsiveness,AHR);第一秒用力呼气容积(forced expiratory volume in one second,FEV1);腺苷一磷酸(adenosine monophosphate,AMP);FEV1下降20%时吸入乙酰甲胆碱的累积剂量(provocation dosage causing a 20% decrease in FEV1,PD20‑FEV1)
利益冲突声明
所有作者均声明不存在利益冲突
Conflict of Interests
The authors declare that there is no conflict of interests
参考文献(References)
- 1.中华医学会呼吸病学分会哮喘学组 . 胸闷变异性哮喘诊治中国专家共识[J]. 中华医学杂志, 2023, 103(34): 2662-2673. 10.3760/cma.j.cn112137-20230704-01143 [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]; China Asthma Group of Chinese Thoracic Society . Expert consensus on the diagnosis and treatment of chest tightness variant asthma in China[J]. National Medical Journal of China, 2023, 103(34): 2662-2673. (in Chinese) 10.3760/cma.j.cn112137-20230704-01143. 10.3760/cma.j.cn112137-20230704-01143 [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 2.车鸾卿, 杜旭菲, 颜伏归, 等. 中国胸闷变异性哮喘临床研究回顾及启示[J]. 中华医学杂志, 2023, 103(34): 2639-2646. 10.3760/cma.j.cn112137-20230416-00677 [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]; CHE Luanqing, DU Xufei, YAN, Fugui, et al. Review and perspective of clinical research involving chest tightness variant asthma in China[J]. National Medical Journal of China, 2023, 103(34): 2639-2646. (in Chinese) 10.3760/cma.j.cn112137-20230416-00677. 10.3760/cma.j.cn112137-20230416-00677 [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 3.LIU W C, LIU Y Q, ZHENG L Y, et al. The diagnostic value of astograph test for patients with chest tightness variant asthma[J]. Int J Clin Exp Med, 2018, 11(8): 8502-8508. [Google Scholar]
- 4.ZHU W, LIU C, SHA L, et al. Atypical asthma in children who present with isolated chest tightness: risk factors and clinical features[J]. J Asthma, 2022, 59(10): 1952-1960. 10.1080/02770903.2021.1980583 [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 5.SHEN H, HUA W, WANG P, et al. A new phenotype of asthma: chest tightness as the sole presenting manifestation[J]. Ann Allergy Asthma Immunol, 2013, 111(3): 226-227. 10.1016/j.anai.2013.06.016 [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 6.HUANG H, HUA W, CHEN R, et al. Perspectives and management of atypical asthma in Chinese specialists and primary care practitioners—a nationwide questionnaire survey[J]. Front Med (Lausanne), 2021, 8: 727381. 10.3389/fmed.2021.727381 [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 7.范韵鑫, 张景熙, 白冲, 等. 非典型主诉支气管哮喘临床诊断学特征及误诊分析[J/OL]. 中华诊断学电子杂志, 2018, 6(1): 29-36. 10.3877/cma.j.issn.2095-655X.2018.01.006 [DOI] [Google Scholar]; FAN Yunxin, ZHANG Jingxi, BAI Chong, et al. Clinical diagnostic characteristics and misdiagnosis analysis of bronchial asthma with atypical chief complaints[J/OL]. Chinese Journal of Diagnostics (Electronic Edition), 2018, 6(1): 29-36. (in Chinese) 10.3877/cma.j.issn.2095-655X.2018.01.006. 10.3877/cma.j.issn.2095-655X.2018.01.006 [DOI] [Google Scholar]
- 8.中华医学会呼吸病学分会 . 轻度支气管哮喘诊断与治疗中国专家共识(2023)[J]. 中华结核和呼吸杂志, 2023, 46(9): 880-896. 10.3760/cma.j.cn112147-20230311-00126 [DOI] [Google Scholar]; Chinese Thoracic Society . Expert consensus on the diagnosis, treatment and management of mild bronchial asthma in China (2023 edition)[J]. Chinese Journal of Tuberculosis and Respiratory Diseases, 2023, 46(9): 880-896. (in Chinese) 10.3760/cma.j.cn112147-20230311-00126. 10.3760/cma.j.cn112147-20230311-00126 [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 9.中华医学会儿科学分会呼吸学组哮喘协作组, 中华医学会呼吸病学分会哮喘学组, 中国医药教育协会儿科专业委员会 . 儿童胸闷变异性哮喘诊断与治疗专家共识[J]. 中华实用儿科临床杂志, 2023, 38(9): 641-646. 10.3760/cma.j.cn101070-20230719-00017 [DOI] [Google Scholar]; Cooperative Group of Asthma, the Subspecialty Group of Respiratory, the Society of Pediatrics, Chinese Medical Association; the Subspecialty Group of Asthma, the Society of Respiratory, Chinese Medical Association; China Medicine Education Association Committee on Pediatrics . Expert consensus on the diagnosis and treatment of chest tightness variant asthma in children[J]. Chinese Journal of Applied Clinical Pediatrics, 2023, 38(9): 641-646. (in Chinese) 10.3760/cma.j.cn101070-20230719-00017. 10.3760/cma.j.cn101070-20230719-00017 [DOI] [Google Scholar]
- 10.郭晶, 娄南南, 李佳林, 等. 胸闷变异性哮喘与典型哮喘的研究进展[J]. 结核与肺部疾病杂志, 2023, 4(5): 413-418. [Google Scholar]; GUO Jing, LOU Nannan, LI Jialin, et al. Research progress of chest tightness variant asthma and comparison with typical asthma[J]. Journal of Tuberculosis and Lung Disease, 2023, 4(5): 413-418. (in Chinese) [Google Scholar]
- 11.李朝霞, 张金兰, 张湘燕, 等. 胸闷变异性哮喘68例分析并文献复习[J]. 现代医药卫生, 2019, 35(16): 2587-2589. 10.3969/j.issn.1009-5519.2019.16.05730688466 [DOI] [Google Scholar]; LI Zhaoxia, ZHANG Jinlan, ZHANG Xiangyan, et al. Analysis of 68 cases of chest tightness variant asthma and literature review[J]. Journal of Modern Medicine & Health, 2019, 35(16): 2587-2589. (in Chinese) 10.3969/j.issn.1009-5519.2019.16.057. 10.3969/j.issn.1009-5519.2019.16.057 [DOI] [Google Scholar]
- 12.FENG Y, ZHANG S, SHANG Y, et al. The use of exercise challenge testing and fractional exhaled nitric oxide in diagnosis of chest tightness variant asthma in children[J]. Int Arch Allergy Immunol, 2022, 183(7): 762-769. 10.1159/000522062 [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 13.尹硕淼, 陈远彬, 吴 蕾, 等. 胸闷变异性哮喘中医辨治思路刍议[J]. 辽宁中医杂志, 2019, 46(6): 1174-1176. 31429479 [Google Scholar]; YIN Shuomiao, CHEN Yuanbin, WU Lei, et al. Thinking of traditional Chinese medicine treating chest tightness variant asthma[J]. Liaoning Journal of Traditional Chinese Medicine, 2019, 46(6): 1174-1176. (in Chinese) [Google Scholar]
-
14.李今庸. 考“
”[J]. 天津中医药大学学报, 2011, 30(3): 129-130. [Google Scholar]; LI Jinyong. Study on Mian[J]. Journal of Tianjin University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, 2011, 30(3): 129-130. (in Chinese) [Google Scholar]
- 15.广东、 广西、 湖南、 河南辞源修订组, 商务印书馆编辑部 . 辞源(修订本)[M]. 北京: 商务印书馆, 1998: 617. [Google Scholar]; The Revision Team of Etymological Dictionary in Guangdong, Guangxi, Hunan and Henan, the Editorial Department of the Commercial Press . Etymological Dictionary (Revised Edition)[M]. Beijing: The Com-mercial Press, 1998: 617. (in Chinese) [Google Scholar]
- 16.蔡柏蔷, 李龙芸. 协和呼吸病学[M]. 2版. 北京: 中国协和医科大学出版社, 2011: 201-205. [Google Scholar]; CAI Boqiang. LI Longyun. Pumc Respirology[M]. 2nd ed. Beijing: Peking Union Medical College Press, 2011: 201-205. (in Chinese) [Google Scholar]
- 17.BINKS A P. Dyspnea[J]. Handb Clin Neurol, 2022, 188: 309-338. 10.1016/b978-0-323-91534-2.00008-4 [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 18.NISHINO T. Dyspnoea: underlying mechanisms and treatment[J]. Br J Anaesth, 2011, 106(4): 463-474. 10.1093/bja/aer040 [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 19.BANZETT R B, PEDERSEN S H, SCHWARTZSTEIN R M, et al. The affective dimension of laboratory dyspnea: air hunger is more unpleasant than work/effort[J]. Am J Respir Crit Care Med, 2008, 177(12): 1384-1390. 10.1164/rccm.200711-1675oc [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 20.DRAKE M G, COOK M, FRYER A D, et al. Airway sensory nerve plasticity in asthma and chronic cough[J]. Front Physiol, 2021, 12: 720538. 10.3389/fphys.2021.720538 [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 21.BURKI N K, DALE W J, LEE L Y. Intravenous adenosine and dyspnea in humans[J]. J Appl Physiol (1985), 2005, 98(1): 180-185. 10.1152/japplphysiol.00913.2004 [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 22.MCALEXANDER M A, GAVETT S H, KOLLARIK M, et al. Vagotomy reverses established allergen-induced airway hyperreactivity to methacholine in the mouse[J]. Respir Physiol Neurobiol, 2015, 212-214: 20-24. 10.1016/j.resp.2015.03.007 [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 23.MARSH B J, FRYER A D, JACOBY D B, et al. Transient receptor potential ankyrin-1 causes rapid bronchodilation via nonepithelial PGE2[J]. Am J Physiol Lung Cell Mol Physiol, 2020, 318(5): L943-L952. 10.1152/ajplung.00277.2019 [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 24.TAGUCHI O, KIKUCHI Y, HIDA W, et al. Effects of bronchoconstriction and external resistive loading on the sensation of dyspnea[J]. J Appl Physiol (1985), 1991, 71(6): 2183-2190. 10.1152/jappl.1991.71.6.2183 [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 25.PATTINSON K T, JOHNSON M J. Neuroimaging of central breathlessness mechanisms[J]. Curr Opin Support Palliat Care, 2014, 8(3): 225-233. 10.1097/spc.0000000000000069 [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 26.SALOME C M, XUAN W, GRAY E J, et al. Perception of airway narrowing in a general population sample[J]. Eur Respir J, 1997, 10(5): 1052-1058. 10.1183/09031936.97.10051052 [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 27.BINKS A P, MOOSAVI S H, BANZETT R B, SCHWA-RTZSTEIN R M. “Tightness” sensation of asthma does not arise from the work of breathing[J]. Am J Respir Crit Care Med, 2002, 165(1): 78-82. 10.1164/ajrccm.165.1.2105061 [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 28.MOY M L, WOODROW WEISS J, SPARROW D, et al. Quality of dyspnea in bronchoconstriction differs from external resistive loads[J]. Am J Respir Crit Care Med, 2000, 162(2 Pt 1): 451-455. 10.1164/ajrccm.162.2.9907138 [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 29.CAO C, LI W, HUA W, et al. Proteomic analysis of sputum reveals novel biomarkers for various presenta-tions of asthma[J]. J Transl Med, 2017, 15(1): 171. 10.1186/s12967-017-1264-y [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 30.朱本洪, 沈建秀, 沈霞, 等. 胸闷为主要症状哮喘的临床通气功能和变态反应特征[J]. 中国急救医学, 2000, 20(4): 225-226. 10.3969/j.issn.1002-1949.2000.04.019 [DOI] [Google Scholar]; ZHU Benhong, SHEN Jianxiu, SHEN Xia, et al. Clinical ventilatory function and allergic characteristics of asthma mainly manifesting as chest tightness[J]. Chinese Journal of Critical Care Medicine, 2000, 20(4): 225-226. (in Chinese) 10.3969/j.issn.1002-1949.2000.04.019. 10.3969/j.issn.1002-1949.2000.04.019 [DOI] [Google Scholar]
- 31.张明强, 郭文佳, 徐文帅, 等. 胸闷变异性哮喘患者肺功能及炎症特点[J]. 南京医科大学学报(自然科学版), 2023, 43(2): 225-229, 262. [Google Scholar]; ZHANG Mingqiang, GUO Wenjia, XU Wenshuai, et al. The characteristics of pulmonary function and inflam-matory in patients with chest tightness variant asthma[J]. Journal of Nanjing Medical University (Natural Sciences), 2023, 43(2): 225-229, 262. (in Chinese) [Google Scholar]
- 32.宋欣, 李硕, 朱雯靓, 等. 儿童胸闷变异性哮喘肺功能改变的特征[J]. 中华临床免疫和变态反应杂志, 2020, 14(1): 27-32. 10.3969/j.issn.1673-8705.2020.01.006 [DOI] [Google Scholar]; SONG Xin, LI Shuo, ZHU Wenliang, et al. Charac-teristics of pulmonary function changes in children with chest tightness variant asthma[J]. Chinese Journal of Allergy & Clinical Immunology, 2020, 14(1): 27-32. (in Chinese) 10.3969/j.issn.1673-8705.2020.01.006. 10.3969/j.issn.1673-8705.2020.01.006 [DOI] [Google Scholar]
- 33.刘芬, 尚云晓, 蔡栩栩, 等. 胸闷变异性哮喘儿童气道高反应性的特点[J]. 中华实用儿科临床杂志, 2018, 33(16): 1229-1232. 10.3760/cma.j.issn.2095-428X.2018.16.007 [DOI] [Google Scholar]; LIU Fen, SHANG Yunxiao, CAI Xuxu, et al. Charac-teristics of airway hyperresponsiveness in children with chest tightness variant asthma[J]. Chinese Journal of Applied Clinical Pediatrics, 2018, 33(16): 1229-1232. (in Chinese) 10.3760/cma.j.issn.2095-428X.2018.16.007. 10.3760/cma.j.issn.2095-428X.2018.16.007 [DOI] [Google Scholar]
- 34.TANIGUCHI H, FURUSE H, NAKANISHI Y, et al. Bronchial biopsy and reactivity in patients with chest tightness relieved with bronchodilator[J]. J Asthma, 2017, 54(5): 479-487. 10.1080/02770903.2016.1236940 [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 35.TANIGUCHI H, NAKANISHI Y, TSUDA T, et al. Chest tightness is relieved with the use of asthma drugs except bronchodilators[J]. J Asthma, 2019, 56(11): 1182-1192. 10.1080/02770903.2018.1531999 [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 36.MARKS G B, YATES D H, SIST M, et al. Respiratory sensation during bronchial challenge testing with metha-choline, sodium metabisulphite, and adenosine monopho-sphate[J]. Thorax, 1996, 51(8): 793-798. 10.1136/thx.51.8.793 [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 37.任红岩, 王建锋. 胸闷患者的肺功能及气道反应性测定[J]. 宁夏医学杂志, 2003, 25(12): 742-743. 10.3969/j.issn.1001-5949.2003.12.016 [DOI] [Google Scholar]; REN Hongyan, WANG Jianfeng. Pulmonary function and airway responsiveness determination in patients with chest tightness[J]. Ningxia Medical Journal, 2003, 25(12): 742-743. (in Chinese) 10.3969/j.issn.1001-5949.2003.12.016. 10.3969/j.issn.1001-5949.2003.12.016 [DOI] [Google Scholar]
- 38.刘芬, 尚云晓, 蔡栩栩, 等. 以胸闷或长叹气为主诉的不典型哮喘儿童肺功能和呼出气一氧化氮特点分析[J]. 国际儿科学杂志, 2016, 43(10): 820-825. 10.3760/cma.j.issn.1673-4408.2016.10.019 [DOI] [Google Scholar]; LIU Fen, SHANG Yunxiao, CAI Xuxu, et al. Charac-teristics of lung function and exhaled nitric oxide in atypical asthma children with chest tightness or sighing breath as sole manifestation[J]. International Journal of Pediatrics, 2016, 43(10): 820-825. (in Chinese) 10.3760/cma.j.issn.1673-4408.2016.10.019. 10.3760/cma.j.issn.1673-4408.2016.10.019 [DOI] [Google Scholar]
- 39.周伟, 李海霞, 肖少波, 等. 呼出气一氧化氮联合肺功能检测在儿童胸闷变异性哮喘诊断中的价值[J]. 临床肺科杂志, 2021, 26(7): 993-996, 1003. 10.3969/j.issn.1009-6663.2021.07.006 [DOI] [Google Scholar]; ZHOU Wei, LI Haixia, XIAO Shaobo, et al. Diagnostic value of exhaled nitric oxide (FeNO) and pulmonary function parameters in children with chest tightnes variant asthma[J]. Journal of Clinical Pulmonary Medicine, 2021, 26(7): 993-996, 1003. (in Chinese) 10.3969/j.issn.1009-6663.2021.07.006. 10.3969/j.issn.1009-6663.2021.07.006 [DOI] [Google Scholar]
- 40.李沛珊, 张红, 刘莹. 肺功能检查在儿童胸闷变异性哮喘和支气管哮喘鉴别诊断中的临床价值[J]. 中国处方药, 2023, 21(8): 16-20. 10.3969/j.issn.1671-945X.2023.08.005 [DOI] [Google Scholar]; LI Peishan, ZHANG Hong, LIU Ying. The clinical value of pulmonary function examination in the differential diagnosis of chest tightness and asthma in children[J]. Journal of China Prescription Drug, 2023, 21(8): 16-20. (in Chinese) 10.3969/j.issn.1671-945X.2023.08.005. 10.3969/j.issn.1671-945X.2023.08.005 [DOI] [Google Scholar]
- 41.MOY M L, LANTIN M L, HARVER A, et al. Language of dyspnea in assessment of patients with acute asthma treated with nebulized albuterol[J]. Am J Respir Crit Care Med, 1998, 158(3): 749-753. 10.1164/ajrccm.158.3.9707088 [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 42.BAO W, ZHANG X, YIN J, et al. Small-airway function variables in spirometry, fractional exhaled nitric oxide, and circulating eosinophils predicted airway hyperresponsiveness in patients with mild asthma[J]. J Asthma Allergy, 2021, 14: 415-426. 10.2147/jaa.s295345 [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 43.管健. 综合医院全科医疗门诊中精神心理障碍的患病率及诊疗情况研究[J]. 心理月刊, 2021, 16(12): 6-7. [Google Scholar]; GUAN Jian. Study on the prevalence and diagnosis and treatment of mental and psychological disorders in general medical clinics of general hospitals[J]. Psychologies Magazine, 2021, 16(12): 6-7. (in Chinese) [Google Scholar]
- 44.毛慧子, 陶贵周. 反复胸闷胸痛伴心理精神障碍的诊疗进展[J]. 医学与哲学(B), 2014, 35(2): 48-52. [Google Scholar]; MAO Huizi, TAO Guizhou. The progress in diagnosis and treatment of repeated chest tightness or chest pain with psychological disorders[J]. Medicine & Philosophy (B), 2014, 35(2): 48-52. (in Chinese) [Google Scholar]
- 45.YOHANNES A M, MURRI M B, HANANIA N A, et al. Depressive and anxiety symptoms in patients with COPD: a network analysis[J]. Respir Med, 2022, 198: 106865. 10.1016/j.rmed.2022.106865 [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 46.SINGH D K, MEHROTRA A, ANAND S, et al. Assess-ment of psychiatric co-morbidities in patient of bronchial asthma attending a tertiary medical centre (multicentric study)[J]. J Family Med Prim Care, 2020, 9(11): 5741-5744. 10.4103/jfmpc.jfmpc_1331_20 [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 47.HERIGSTAD M, HAYEN A, EVANS E, et al. Dyspnea-related cues engage the prefrontal cortex: evidence from functional brain imaging in COPD[J]. Chest, 2015, 148(4): 953-961. 10.1378/chest.15-0416 [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 48.PEIFFER C, POLINE J B, THIVARD L, et al. Neural substrates for the perception of acutely induced dyspnea[J]. Am J Respir Crit Care Med, 2001, 163(4): 951-957. 10.1164/ajrccm.163.4.2005057 [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 49.VON LEUPOLDT A, SOMMER T, KEGAT S, et al. The unpleasantness of perceived dyspnea is processed in the anterior insula and amygdala[J]. Am J Respir Crit Care Med, 2008, 177(9): 1026-1032. 10.1164/rccm.200712-1821oc [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 50.LIU W Z, ZHANG W H, ZHENG Z H, et al. Identifi-cation of a prefrontal cortex-to-amygdala pathway for chronic stress-induced anxiety[J]. Nat Commun, 2020, 11(1): 2221. 10.1038/s41467-020-15920-7 [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 51.YU X D, ZHU Y, SUN Q X, et al. Distinct serotonergic pathways to the amygdala underlie separate behavioral features of anxiety[J]. Nat Neurosci, 2022, 25(12): 1651-1663. 10.1038/s41593-022-01200-8 [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 52.SAH P. Fear, anxiety, and the amygdala[J]. Neuron, 2017, 96(1): 1-2. 10.1016/j.neuron.2017.09.013 [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 53.EBERT D, EBMEIER K P. The role of the cingulate gyrus in depression: from functional anatomy to neuro-chemistry[J]. Biol Psychiatry, 1996, 39(12): 1044-1050. 10.1016/0006-3223(95)00320-7 [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 54.ROLLS E T, CHENG W, DU J, et al. Functional connec-tivity of the right inferior frontal gyrus and orbitofrontal cortex in depression[J]. Soc Cogn Affect Neurosci, 2020, 15(1): 75-86. 10.1093/scan/nsaa014 [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 55.YAN F, LI W, GUAN W J, et al. Response of patients with chest tightness variant asthma with routine asthma treatment regimen: a 1multicenter-year, prospective, real-world study[J/OL]. Clin Transl Med, 2020, 10(5): e178. 10.1002/ctm2.178 [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 56.STRINE T W, MOKDAD A H, BALLUZ L S, et al. Impact of depression and anxiety on quality of life, health behaviors, and asthma control among adults in the United States with asthma, 2006[J]. J Asthma, 2008, 45(2): 123-133. 10.1080/02770900701840238 [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 57.牛晓婷, 胡红, 许菡苡, 等. 支气管哮喘控制水平与焦虑抑郁情绪关系的研究[J]. 疑难病杂志, 2014, 13(3): 249-252, 255. 10.3969/j.issn.1671-6450.2014.03.011 [DOI] [Google Scholar]; NIU Xiaoting, HU Hong, XU Hanyi, et al. Study of the relation between bronchial asthma control level and anxiety and depression[J]. Chinese Journal of Difficult and Complicated Cases, 2014, 13(3): 249-252, 255. (in Chinese) 10.3969/j.issn.1671-6450.2014.03.011. 10.3969/j.issn.1671-6450.2014.03.011 [DOI] [Google Scholar]
- 58.RIMINGTON L D, DAVIES D H, LOWE D, et al. Relationship between anxiety, depression, and morbidity in adult asthma patients[J]. Thorax, 2001, 56(4): 266-271. 10.1136/thorax.56.4.266 [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 59.冼志鸿, 酆孟洁, 邱晨. 支气管哮喘与焦虑抑郁关系的研究进展[J]. 山东医药, 2018, 58(6): 97-100. 10.3969/j.issn.1002-266X.2018.06.031 [DOI] [Google Scholar]; XIAN Zhihong, FEI Mengjie, QIU Chen. Progress in the study of the relationship between bronchial asthma and anxiety and depression[J]. Shandong Medical Journal, 2018, 58(6): 97-100. (in Chinese) 10.3969/j.issn.1002-266X.2018.06.031. 10.3969/j.issn.1002-266X.2018.06.031 [DOI] [Google Scholar]
- 60.AHMEDANI BK, PETERSON EL, WELLS KE, et al. Examining the relationship between depression and asthma exacerbations in a prospective follow-up study[J]. Psychosom Med, 2013, 75(3): 305-310. 10.1097/psy.0b013e3182864ee3 [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 61.WRIGHT R J, MITCHELL H, VISNESS C M, et al. Community violence and asthma morbidity: the inner-city asthma study[J]. Am J Public Health, 2004, 94(4): 625-632. 10.2105/ajph.94.4.625 [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 62.TRZCINSKA H, ZWIERZCHOWSKA B, KOZLOWSKI B, et al. Analysis of the role of selected demographic and psychological variables (anxiety and depression) as risk factors of inadequate control of bronchial asthma[J]. Ann Agric Environ Med, 2013, 20(3): 504-508. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 63.ROSENKRANZ M A, BUSSE W W, JOHNSTONE T, et al. Neural circuitry underlying the interaction between emotion and asthma symptom exacerbation[J]. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A, 2005, 102(37): 13319-13324. 10.1073/pnas.0504365102 [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 64.RITZ T, KROLL J L, PATEL S V, et al. Central nervous system signatures of affect in asthma: associa-tions with emotion-induced bronchoconstriction, airway inflammation, and asthma control[J]. J Appl Physiol (1985), 2019, 126(6): 1725-1736. 10.1152/japplphysiol.01018.2018 [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 65.VLEMINCX E, SPRENGER C, BÜCHEL C. Expecta-tion and dyspnoea: the neurobiological basis of res-piratory nocebo effects[J]. Eur Respir J, 2021, 58(3): 2003008. 10.1183/13993003.03008-2020 [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
