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. 2024 Apr 6;103(7):103746. doi: 10.1016/j.psj.2024.103746

The impacts of dietary inclusion of soybean oil and linseed oil on growth performance, carcass yield, and health status of growing Japanese quail

Eman M Ahmed *, Adel I Attia *, Zenat A Ibrahem *, Garsa Alshehry †, Eman H Algarni †, Nasser M Aldekhail ‡, Mohamed E Abd El-Hack *,1
PMCID: PMC11067337  PMID: 38678974

Abstract

Polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA), including n-6 and n-3 fatty acids, are essential for enhancing the performance and health of poultry. Avian species lack desaturase enzymes for endogenous synthesis of n-6 and n-3 fatty acids. This work aimed to determine the impacts of including soybean oil (SO) and linseed oil (LO) in quail diets on growth, lipid profile, hepatic and renal functions, immunity, and antioxidant status. A total of 350 Japanese quail chicks (1-wk-old) were randomly arranged into 7 dietary treatment groups. Seven isocaloric and isonitrogenous experimental basal diets were formed based on the nutritional requirements of growing Japanese quail. Group 1, the control, received a basal with no oils, while groups 2 to 7 received a basal diet containing either 1% SO, 1.5% SO, 2% SO, 1% LO, 1.5% LO, or 2% LO, respectively. Quail groups that consumed diets containing LO at all levels showed significantly greater live body weight (LBW) at 5th wk of age than other experimental groups. The dietary incorporation of 1.5 or 2% SO or LO at all levels yielded significant improvements in body weight gain (BWG) and feed conversion ratio (FCR) through 3 to 5 and 1 to 5 wk of age. Different dietary oil sources and levels have no significant impacts on feed intake (FI) and carcass yield parameters. Lipid profile parameters were improved by adding SO and LO in quail diets, with LO having a higher effect than SO. The hepatic and renal functionality were improved by adding SO and LO in quail diets. The lowest uric acid (UA) bloodstream concentrations were recorded in the quail group fed a diet with 2% LO. Values of Gamma globulins (G-GLO) and immunoglobulins (G, M, and A) were increased by adding SO or LO to quail diets. Blood levels of MDA and TAC were improved significantly by including LO in quail diets. The activity of the superoxide dismutase (SOD) enzyme was significantly increased by adding SO or LO to quail diets. Generally, adding SO or LO to growing quail diets up to 2% could yield favorable effects on growth performance, blood lipids, hepatic and renal functions, immunity, and antioxidant status; however, LO seems to have better effects than SO.

Key words: Japanese quail, soybean oil, linseed oil, growth performance, health status

INTRODUCTION

Poultry diets are usually incorporated with oils, which exert several advantages such as increasing total metabolizable energy, decreasing diet dust, and improving the breakdown and absorption of the lipoproteins along with their fatty acids (FA) content (Nobakht et al., 2011; Ghobashy et al., 2023). In addition, oils could improve palatability, energy utilization, and absorption of vitamins, as well as increase the absorption of all nutrients by decreasing the ingested food passage rate through the gastrointestinal system (Poorghasemi et al., 2013; Abd El-Hack et al., 2016, 2019, 2020; Hussein et al., 2019; Kishawy et al., 2019; Nahed et al., 2020). Unlike animal fats, unsaturated vegetable oils have higher metabolizable energy and reduced fecal energy loss. Mossab et al. (2000) indicated feeding 1-wk-old turkeys on low-fat diets reduced bile salt secretion and lipase activity. Zhang et al. (2010) proposed that polyunsaturated FAs (PUFA) are required to support animal development, performance, and health. Among other PUFAs, omega-3 (n-3) and omega-6 (n-6) are required to support animal physiology (Simopoulos, 2016), development (Kalakuntla et al., 2017), reproduction (Feng et al., 2015), and health (Arias-Rico et al., 2018; Konieczka et al., 2018; Lee et al., 2019). According to Brenner (1971), birds cannot synthesize n-6 and n-3 FAs because they do not possess desaturase enzymes, so these FAs should be included in bird feeds.

Most modern poultry diets consist of corn (rich in n-6 FAs but poor in n-3 FAs), leading to a significant deficiency in these vital FAs (El-Katcha et al., 2014; Ghobashy et al., 2023). Soybean oil (SO), a prevalent energy source in poultry diets, has a high content of PUFAs (∼53.2% n-6 FAs and ∼7.8% n-3 FAs), in addition to 15% saturated FAs and 24% monounsaturated FAs (Mohsen, 2019). Thus, poultry diets are extremely deficient in n-3 FAs content. In vivo, Yamazaki et al. (1992) found competition between n-6 FAs and n-3 FAs; hence, the balance between these FAs in diets should be considered. In poultry diets, the n-6/n3 ratio could have less significance than their absolute content (Saber and Kutlu, 2020). Linseed oil (LO) has a low content of saturated FAs (9%), moderate content of monounsaturated FAs (18%) and high content PUFAs (73%; ∼55% n-3 FAs) (Bartram, 2002). Consequently, supplementing with LO can improve the concentration of n-3 FAs and n-6/n-3 ratio in poultry diets. However, while reducing the ratio of n-6/n-3, it is important to remember the vital role of n-6 FAs.

Owing to these complex relationships, the current work evaluated the influence of SO and LO levels in quail diets on growth performance, lipid profile, hepatic and renal functions, immunity, and antioxidant status.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

In accordance with the guidelines established by the Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee (IACUC) of Zagazig University, Egypt, this study was carried out with approval from the Animal Resources Authority at the Faculty of Agriculture.

Quails, Design, and Diets

Three hundred and fifty Japanese quail chicks (1-wk-old) were randomly arranged into seven dietary treatment groups (5 subgroups with ten chicks each). Seven isocaloric and isonitrogenous experimental basal diets were formed based on the nutritional requirements of growing Japanese quail, according to NRC (1994). The components and nutritional value of these diets are displayed in Table 1. Group 1, the control, was provided with a basal diet with no oils, while groups 2 to 7 received a basal diet containing either 1% SO, 1.5% SO, 2% SO, 1% LO, 1.5% LO, or 2% SO, respectively. Before adding the oils, all of the diet ingredients were mixed manually. After adding the oils, the mixture was again mixed manually and then by a feed mixer machine. All quails were housed in an open-sided farm and maintained under the same hygiene, environment, and management conditions in 50 × 50 × 50 cm3 wire-type cages (ten birds each). All cages were arranged in one-tire organization and each cage was randomly assigned to a subgroup of 10 birds each. Throughout the trial, the chicks were exposed to the light for 23 h daily and constantly provided fresh water and mashed feeds. A manual outdoor metallic linear galvanized feeder supplied each cage. The drinking water was provided to all cages by an automatic linear nipple system. Noteworthy, no drugs or vaccinations were used throughout the experimental period for all birds.

Table 1.

Ingredients and nutrients' calculation of the basal diets.

Ingredients (%) Control Soybean oil (%)
 Linseed oil (%)
1.00 1.50 2.00 1.00 1.50 2.00
Yellow corn 56.50 53.90 52.70 51.40 53.90 52.70 51.40
Soybean meal (44%) 34.00 38.00 40.08 42.10 38.00 40.08 42.10
Corn gluten meal (60%) 6.52 4.24 2.90 1.72 4.24 2.90 1.72
Soybean oil 0.00 1.00 1.50 2.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
Linseed oil 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 1.00 1.50 2.00
Limestone 1.32 1.31 1.31 1.30 1.31 1.31 1.30
Dicalcium phosphate 0.86 0.83 0.81 0.81 0.83 0.81 0.81
Sodium bicarbonate 0.17 0.17 0.17 0.17 0.17 0.17 0.17
Vit. & Min. premix1 0.25 0.25 0.25 0.25 0.25 0.25 0.25
NaCl 0.20 0.20 0.20 0.20 0.20 0.20 0.20
Dl- Methionine 0.00 0.00 0.02 0.03 0.00 0.02 0.03
L-Lysine 0.18 0.10 0.06 0.02 0.10 0.06 0.02
Total 100 100 100 100 100 100 100
Nutrients' Calculation⁎⁎
Crude protein % 24.02 24.05 24.00 24.00 24.05 24.00 24.00
ME (kcal/kg) 2900 2902 2902 2902 2902 2902 2902
Crude fiber % 3.71 3.90 3.81 4.10 3.90 3.81 4.10
Crude fat % 2.58 3.40 3.81 4.21 3.40 3.81 4.21
Calcium % 0.80 0.80 0.80 0.81 0.80 0.80 0.81
Available phosphorus % 0.30 0.30 0.30 0.30 0.30 0.30 0.30
Lysine % 1.31 1.31 1.31 1.30 1.31 1.31 1.30
Methionine + Cystine % 0.81 0.79 0.80 0.80 0.79 0.80 0.80
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⁎⁎

Calculated according to NRC (1994).

1

Growth Vitamin and Mineral premix Each 2 kg consists of:

Vit A 12000, 000 IU; Vit D3, 2000, 000 IU; Vit. E. 10g; Vit k3 2 g; Vit B1, 1000 mg; Vit B2, 49g; Vit B6, 105 g; Vit B12, 10 mg; Pantothenic acid, 10 g; Niacin, 20 g, Folic acid, 1000 mg; Biotin, 50 g; Choline Chloride, 500 mg, Fe, 30 g; Mn, 40 g; Cu, 3 g; Co, 200 mg; Si, 100 mg and Zn, 45 g.

Collecting Data

Growth Performance

Quails were weighed every 2 wk (at the 1st, 3rd, and 5th wk of age) to obtain the subgroup mean of live body weight (LBW; g). The subgroup mean of body gain (BWG; g) for a specific experimental period was estimated as final LBW- initial LBW. Feed intake (FI) was determined for all experimental periods as g/bird/d by dividing the consumed feed for a certain cage through a certain period by the live birds in the same cage through the same period. The feed conversion ratio (FCR) was determined as FI (g)/BWG (g) through different experimental periods.

Carcass Yield Parameters

At the 5th wk of age, five males per experimental group were randomly taken, weighed (g), and slaughtered by Islamic method. The carcass, gizzard, liver, and heart were individually weighed (g). The weights (g) of total giblets (heart + gizzard + liver) and dressing (total giblets + carcass) were computed. The values above were transformed into percentages of the LBW.

Blood Sampling

During quail slaughtering, blood was carefully received from the jugular vein into tubes containing clot activator (silica). After completely clotting, tubes were centrifuged for 10 min at 2,000 × g for separating serum, which was immediately stored below -20°C up to biochemical assay.

Biochemical Assay

Protein electrophoresis test was performed to determine blood serum concentrations (g/dL) of total protein (TP), albumin (ALB), globulin (GLO), alpha-1 globulin (A1-GLO), alpha-2 globulin (A2-GLO), beta-1 globulin (B1-GLO), beta-2 globulin (B2-GLO), and gamma globulin (G-GLO); g/dL). Serum values of total cholesterol (TC; mg/dL), triglyceride (TG; mg/dL), high-density lipoproteins (HDL-c; mg/dL), aspartate and alanine transaminases (AST and ALT; U/L), creatinine (mg/dL), urea (mg/dL), and uric acid (UA; mg/dL) were analyzed by spectrophotometer with commercial kits of Biodiagnostic Company (Giza – Egypt). Very low-density lipoproteins (VLDL-c; mg/dL) were computed by dividing TGs by 5. Low-density lipoproteins (LDL-c; mg/dL) were computed by subtracting the concentration of HDL-c and VLDL-c from the concentration of total cholesterol. Immunoglobulins G, M, and A (IgG, IgM, and IgA) were estimated (mg/mL) by using a 96-well plate with specific ELISA kits. Serum content of malondialdehyde (MDA; µmol/L) and total antioxidant capacity (TAC; mmol/L), and superoxide dismutase activity (SOD; U/mL) were detected using spectrophotometer by appropriate commercial kits (Shimadzu, Japan).

Statistics

This study aimed to determine the effect of adding different levels of soybean or linseed oil separately compared to the control group. So, there was one independent variable (factor) and no multiple main effects or interactions. Thus, the one-way ANOVA test was conducted to estimate the significance level of this factor effect on each dependent variable and Tukey's test was performed to compare the individual variations among experimental groups. These tests were performed for all variables in just a single run using the SAS software program. Finally, the study's conclusion considered the effect of the independent variable on all independent variables.

RESULTS

Growth Performance

The influences of different dietary levels of SO and LO on live body weight and body weight gain of growing quail through the other intervals are presented in Table 2. Various oil sources failed to vary (P > 0.05) from the control in live body weight at wk 3 of age and body weight gain from wk 1 to wk 3. At the 5th wk of age, bird groups that consumed diets containing LO at all levels showed significantly greater live body weight (P = 0.001) than other experimental groups. Body weight gain values from wk 3 to 5 and 1 to 5 were greater (P < 0.001) in LO-supplemented groups than in different groups. However, groups fed diets containing 1.5% and 2% SO gained more (P < 0.001) weight than control during the same intervals.

Table 2.

Growth performance of growing Japanese quail as affected by the dietary inclusion of soybean oil or linseed oil.

Items Oil levels
 P-value
0.0%
(control)		 1%
Soybean oil		 1.5%
Soybean oil		 2%
Soybean oil		 1%
Linseed oil		 1.5%
Linseed oil		 2%
Linseed oil
LBW (g)
1 wk 45.21 ± 1.76 44.84 ± 1.50 45.54 ± 1.87 45.28 ± 2.18 45.61 ± 1.99 45.29 ± 2.26 45.14 ± 1.65 0.999
3 wk 151.40 ± 4.86 152.10 ± 4.97 153.60 ± 4.06 152.90 ± 4.59 155.50 ± 2.90 154.90 ± 1.85 155.70 ± 3.10 0.758
5 wk 229.00 ± 4.31b 232.90 ± 7.45b 239.30 ± 4.88b 238.40 ± 5.01b 251.70 ± 9.13a 250.40 ± 4.17a 252.70 ± 6.17a 0.001
BWG (g/bird/d)
1–3 wk 7.59 ± 0.23 7.66 ± 0.25 7.72 ± 0.16 7.68 ± 0.17 7.85 ± 0.07 7.83 ± 0.03 7.90 ± 0.11 0.267
3–5 wk 5.54 ± 0.06c 5.77 ± 0.19bc 6.12 ± 0.09b 6.11 ± 0.09b 6.87 ± 0.45a 6.83 ± 0.17a 6.92 ± 0.22a <0.001
1–5 wk 6.56 ± 0.09c 6.72 ± 0.21bc 6.92 ± 0.11b 6.89 ± 0.10b 7.36 ± 0.26a 7.33 ± 0.08a 7.41 ± 0.17a <0.001
FI (g/bird/d)
1–3 wk 18.02 ± 0.77 17.72 ± 1.26 17.41 ± 0.64 17.71 ± 0.43 17.62 ± 0.59 17.36 ± 0.73 17.20 ± 0.64 0.872
3–5 wk 29.56 ± 1.14 29.80 ± 2.15 29.26 ± 1.27 29.21 ± 1.90 29.91 ± 2.25 29.16 ± 0.64 28.91 ± 2.25 0.990
1–5 wk 23.79 ± 0.95 23.76 ± 1.70 23.33 ± 0.95 23.46 ± 1.16 23.76 ± 1.42 23.26 ± 0.69 23.06 ± 1.44 0.982
FCR (g feed/g gain)
1–3 wk 2.37 ± 0.04a 2.31 ± 0.09ab 2.26 ± 0.04abc 2.30 ± 0.01ab 2.24 ± 0.06bc 2.22 ± 0.10bc 2.18 ± 0.06c 0.036
3–5 wk 5.34 ± 0.24a 5.16 ± 0.22a 4.79 ± 0.19b 4.78 ± 0.29b 4.35 ± 0.05c 4.27 ± 0.03c 4.17 ± 0.21c <0.001
1–5 wk 3.63 ± 0.10a 3.53 ± 0.14ab 3.37 ± 0.10bcd 3.40 ± 0.12bc 3.23 ± 0.09cde 3.18 ± 0.07de 3.11 ± 0.14e <0.001
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Means in the same row within each classification bearing different letters are significantly different (P ≤ 0.05).

Abbreviations: BWG, body weight gain; FI, feed intake; FCR, feed conversion ratio; LBW, live body weight.

Various dietary oil sources and levels did not significantly impact FI throughout all experimental periods (Table 2). FCR values were significantly (P = 0.036) improved with adding LO to quail diets at all levels through 1 to 3 wk of age, while levels of SO did not affect FCR during this period compared to the control. Through 3 to 5 and 1 to 5 wk, birds that consumed diets containing LO showed better FCR (P < 0.001) than other birds, while the inclusion of 1.5% and 2% SO significantly improved FCR in comparison to the control. The low level of SO (1%) failed to vary significantly from the control in FCR data for all intervals.

Carcass Yield Variables

Tabulated data in Table 3 illustrated non-significant effects of the diets' content of SO or LO on the tested carcass yield parameters, that is, carcass % (P = 0.618), dressing % (P = 0.670), total giblets % (P = 0.884), gizzard % (P = 0.703), liver % (P = 0.677), and heart % (P = 0.896).

Table 3.

Carcass yield of growing Japanese quail as affected by the dietary inclusion of soybean oil or linseed oil.

Items Oil levels
 P-value
0.0%
(control)		 1%
Soybean oil		 1.5%
Soybean oil		 2%
Soybean oil		 1%
Linseed oil		 1.5%
Linseed oil		 2%
Linseed oil
Carcass (%) 75.35 ± 0.24 75.59 ± 0.88 75.33 ± 0.69 75.86 ± 1.35 75.93 ± 1.56 76.93 ± 0.93 75.98 ± 1.38 0.618
Dressing (%) 79.57 ± 0.16 79.99 ± 0.84 79.88 ± 0.69 80.19 ± 1.60 80.18 ± 1.70 81.32 ± 0.88 80.37 ± 1.41 0.670
Total giblets (%) 4.22 ± 0.31 4.41 ± 0.36 4.55 ± 0.28 4.33 ± 0.24 4.25 ± 0.55 4.39 ± 0.15 4.39 ± 0.04 0.884
Gizzard (%) 1.52 ± 0.26 1.50 ± 0.17 1.68 ± 0.12 1.56 ± 0.04 1.56 ± 0.28 1.45 ± 0.08 1.46 ± 0.15 0.703
Liver (%) 1.73 ± 0.12 1.85 ± 0.15 1.82 ± 0.20 1.76 ± 0.25 1.75 ± 0.22 1.92 ± 0.20 1.97 ± 0.15 0.677
Heart (%) 0.98 ± 0.12 1.06 ± 0.14 1.04 ± 0.15 1.01 ± 0.13 0.94 ± 0.16 1.02 ± 0.08 0.96 ± 0.06 0.896
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Serum Protein Fractions

Apart from gamma globulins (G-GLO), including various levels of SO or LO in quail diets did not modify (P > 0.05) bloodstream concentrations of different protein fraction parameters, as clarified in Table 4. Gamma globulins values were increased to a greater extent than control in groups fed diets supplemented with 2% SO, 1.5% LO, or 2% LO. The other oil-supplemented groups had intermediate values of gamma globulins, which were comparable to the other groups, including the control.

Table 4.

Serum protein fractions of growing Japanese quail as affected by the dietary inclusion of soybean oil or linseed oil.

Items Oil levels
 P-Value
0.0%
(control)		 1%
Soybean oil		 1.5%
Soybean oil		 2%
Soybean oil		 1%
Linseed oil		 1.5%
Linseed oil		 2%
Linseed oil
TP (g/dL) 5.20 ± 0.18 5.24 ± 0.24 5.20 ± 0.20 5.34 ± 0.30 5.23 ± 0.41 5.23 ± 0.32 5.38 ± 0.44 0.984
ALB (g/dL) 2.69 ± 0.15 2.70 ± 0.06 2.64 ± 0.16 2.70 ± 0.10 2.64 ± 0.24 2.57 ± 0.12 2.67 ± 0.21 0.951
GLO (g/dL) 2.51 ± 0.22 2.54 ± 0.28 2.56 ± 0.21 2.64 ± 0.21 2.59 ± 0.18 2.66 ± 0.20 2.71 ± 0.27 0.922
A/G ratio 1.08 ± 0.13 1.07 ± 0.14 1.04 ± 0.12 1.03 ± 0.05 1.02 ± 0.05 0.97 ± 0.04 0.99 ± 0.07 0.747
A1-GLO (g/dL) 0.30 ± 0.03 0.31 ± 0.04 0.29 ± 0.04 0.30 ± 0.03 0.29 ± 0.03 0.30 ± 0.03 0.31 ± 0.03 0.971
Α2-GLO (g/dL) 0.45 ± 0.04 0.46 ± 0.05 0.44 ± 0.05 0.44 ± 0.03 0.45 ± 0.03 0.45 ± 0.04 0.45 ± 0.05 0.995
B1-GLO (g/dL) 0.48 ± 0.03 0.44 ± 0.07 0.49 ± 0.03 0.48 ± 0.05 0.49 ± 0.04 0.49 ± 0.04 0.50 ± 0.03 0.757
B2-GLO (g/dL) 0.60 ± 0.07 0.61 ± 0.04 0.60 ± 0.05 0.62 ± 0.05 0.60 ± 0.05 0.60 ± 0.05 0.61 ± 0.09 1.000
G-GLO (g/dL) 0.67 ± 0.07c 0.71 ± 0.09bc 0.74 ± 0.05abc 0.80 ± 0.06ab 0.77 ± 0.04abc 0.81 ± 0.05ab 0.85 ± 0.08a 0.050
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Means in the same row within each classification bearing different letters are significantly different (P ≤ 0.05).

Abbreviations: ALB, albumin; A1-GLO, alpha-1 globulin; A2-GLO, alpha-2 globulin; B1-GLO, beta-1 globulin; B2-GLO, beta-2 globulin; A/G, albumin/ globulin ratio; GLO, globulin; G-GLO, gamma globulin; TP, total protein.

Lipid Profile Parameters

As displayed in Table 5, dietary oil sources and levels markedly altered blood lipid profile parameters. Adding SO or LO in quail diets at all levels lessened total cholesterol (P = 0.014) and LDL-c (P = 0.009) compared to the non-oil diet (the control). Different levels of LO in quail diets declined (P = 0.012) blood levels of triglycerides and VLDL-c compared to the control, while these values in SO-supplemented groups were halfway among the control group and LO-included ones. The blood serum concentrations of HDL-c were heightened (P < 0.001) by including quail diets with 1.5% or 2% SO or LO at all levels, in comparison with the other quail groups (control, 1% SO, and 1% LO). It is worth mentioning that the dietary incorporation of 2% LO exerted the best results on lipid profile parameters.

Table 5.

Lipid profile of growing Japanese quail as affected by the dietary inclusion of soybean oil or linseed oil.

Items Oil levels
 P-Value
0.0%
(control)		 1%
Soybean oil		 1.5%
Soybean oil		 2%
Soybean oil		 1%
Linseed oil		 1.5%
Linseed oil		 2%
Linseed oil
TC (mg/dL) 330.70 ± 38.37a 275.80 ± 21.33b 274.10 ± 41.84b 262.40 ± 27.36b 263.50 ± 27.01b 242.50 ± 22.60b 221.00 ± 15.90b 0.014
TGs (mg/dL) 389.50 ± 29.99a 373.70 ± 42.90ab 350.70 ± 19.23abc 336.50 ± 30.01abc 321.80 ± 19.68bc 310.10 ± 21.72c 297.70 ± 26.48c 0.012
HDL-c (mg/dL) 38.94 ± 1.60d 42.19 ± 3.42d 48.65 ± 2.49bc 52.22 ± 3.91ab 44.30 ± 3.24cd 50.99 ± 2.69ab 55.37 ± 4.13a <0.001
LDL-c (mg/dL) 213.90 ± 34.03a 158.90 ± 16.09b 155.30 ± 40.32bc 142.90 ± 25.29bc 154.90 ± 26.28bc 129.50 ± 20.98bc 106.10 ± 14.47c 0.009
VLDL-c (mg/dL) 77.90 ± 6.00a 74.74 ± 8.58ab 70.14 ± 3.84abc 67.30 ± 6.01abc 64.36 ± 3.93bc 62.02 ± 4.35c 59.53 ± 5.30c 0.012
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Means in the same row within each classification bearing different letters are significantly different (P ≤ 0.05).

Abbreviations: HDL-c, high-density lipoprotein; LDL-c, low-density lipoprotein; TC, total cholesterol; TGs, triglycerides; VLDL-c, very low-density lipoprotein.

Hepatic and Renal Functionality Measurements

Table 6 displays the data of the experimental groups' hepatic and renal functionality measurements. Birds that received diets with LO at all levels or SO at 1.5% had lessened (P < 0.001) ALT activity than birds that received the control diet or those that received 1% SO. The dietary incorporation of SO at levels 1 and 2% or LO at all levels significantly inhibited AST activity relative to the control. Creatinine values were also suppressed (P = 0.045) in response to feeding quail on diets that included different levels of SO or LO. In contrast, blood urea levels showed non-significant (P = 0.248) differences among experimental groups. Concerning levels of blood uric acid, the minimum contents were detected in the quails fed a diet with 2% LO, while the maximum contents were recorded in 1% SO-fed quails.

Table 6.

Hepatic and renal function tests of growing Japanese quail as affected by the dietary inclusion of soybean oil or linseed oil.

Items Oil levels
 P-value
0.0%
(control)		 1%
Soybean oil		 1.5%
Soybean oil		 2%
Soybean oil		 1%
Linseed oil		 1.5%
Linseed oil		 2%
Linseed oil
ALT (U/L) 14.29 ± 1.37a 13.41 ± 0.99ab 11.72 ± 1.29bcd 12.57 ± 1.20abc 9.07 ± 0.75e 10.87 ± 0.81cde 9.97 ± 0.63de <0.001
AST (U/L) 211.50 ± 22.80a 172.70 ± 23.02b 178.10 ± 22.91ab 164.90 ± 8.14b 156.20 ± 19.63b 163.60 ± 17.83b 148.60 ± 20.88b 0.036
Creatinine (mg/dL) 0.58 ± 0.06a 0.44 ± 0.06b 0.46 ± 0.06b 0.45 ± 0.06b 0.43 ± 0.06b 0.40 ± 0.05b 0.43 ± 0.07b 0.045
Urea (mg/dL) 2.27 ± 0.19 2.23 ± 0.23 2.07 ± 0.20 2.19 ± 0.17 1.99 ± 0.12 2.02 ± 0.17 1.94 ± 0.20 0.248
UA (mg/dL) 4.43 ± 0.62ab 4.66 ± 0.56a 3.90 ± 0.17abc 4.16 ± 0.44ab 3.55 ± 0.48bc 3.73 ± 0.46bc 3.24 ± 0.46c 0.029
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Means in the same row within each classification bearing different letters are significantly different (P ≤ 0.05).

Abbreviations: AST, aspartate aminotransferase; ALT, alanine aminotransferase.

Immunity and Antioxidant Indices

The consequences of adding various concentrations of SO or LO in growing Japanese quail diets on immunity and antioxidant status are presented in Table 7. Birds that consumed diets with SO at levels of 1.5% and 2%, or LO at all levels, had increased values of serum IgG (P = 0.003) compared with the other quail groups. Also, IgM values were greater in birds that consumed diets with all levels of LO and 1.5% SO than in those that consumed a control diet and 1% SO-included diet. However, 2% SO exhibited similar IgM values to the other groups in the experiment. Conversely, serum IgA levels were not statistically changed (P = 0.625) in response to different oil sources and levels. Concerning MDA, 1% or 2% LO-supplemented groups had lesser (P = 0.026) values of serum MDA than the control and 1% SO-supplemented groups.

Table 7.

Immunity and antioxidant indices of growing Japanese quail as affected by the dietary inclusion of soybean oil or linseed oil.

Items Oil levels
 P-value
0.0%
(control)		 1%
Soybean oil		 1.5%
Soybean oil		 2%
Soybean oil		 1%
Linseed oil		 1.5%
Linseed oil		 2%
Linseed oil
IgG (mg/mL) 3.65 ± 0.29c 3.80 ± 0.45bc 4.39 ± 0.23a 4.25 ± 0.20ab 4.69 ± 0.31a 4.45 ± 0.23a 4.86 ± 0.41a 0.003
IgM (mg/mL) 1.46 ± 0.15b 1.58 ± 0.15b 1.99 ± 0.20a 1.80 ± 0.18ab 2.15 ± 0.24a 2.04 ± 0.24a 2.14 ± 0.24a 0.004
IgA (mg/mL) 0.31 ± 0.04 0.31 ± 0.04 0.31 ± 0.04 0.35 ± 0.04 0.32 ± 0.03 0.34 ± 0.03 0.33 ± 0.04 0.625
MDA (µmol/L) 3.92 ± 0.24ab 4.03 ± 0.45a 3.55 ± 0.26abc 3.42 ± 0.31bc 3.27 ± 0.23c 3.45 ± 0.37bc 3.16 ± 0.15c 0.026
TAC (mmol/L) 3.17 ± 0.23d 3.33 ± 0.31cd 3.68 ± 0.33abcd 3.52 ± 0.24bcd 4.18 ± 0.41a 4.00 ± 0.45ab 3.84 ± 0.25abc 0.021
SOD (U/mL) 138.60 ± 14.07c 170.10 ± 9.11ab 145.60 ± 13.82bc 165.50 ± 13.55ab 175.80 ± 14.60a 170.20 ± 13.75ab 181.00 ± 17.88a 0.019
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Means in the same row within each classification bearing different letters are significantly different (P ≤ 0.05).

Abbreviations: IgG, immunoglobulin G; IgM, immunoglobulin M; IgA, immunoglobulin A; MDA, malondialdehyde; TAC, total antioxidant capacity; SOD, superoxide dismutase.

Regarding TAC, quail groups that received feeds containing LO at any level had elevated (P = 0.021) serum content of TAC compared to the control group. In contrast, the other oil-treated groups had intermediate values of TAC. The SOD activity was significantly increased in quail groups that were given diets with 1% or 2% SO or diets with LO at any level, compared to the non-oil-treated group.

DISCUSSION

Oils are commonly incorporated into animal feeds for formulating an economic high-energy diet. The profits of oil utilization in poultry feeds include the improvement in the breakdown and absorption of the lipoproteins along with their content of FAs (Nobakht et al., 2011). The present study achieved the highest performance indices by quails that received diets with SO or LO, with more efficient outcomes from LO-supplemented diets. These results align with those of Huo et al. (2019), who found that increasing PUFAs content in broiler diets leads to an increase in their growth performance. Obaid and Jameel (2023) reported that replacing corn with 7.5% whole flaxseed in broiler diets (starter, grower, and finisher) improved live body weight, body weight gain, and feed utilization.

Additionally, Raj Manohar and Edwin (2015) stated that including n-3 FAs in quail feeds exhibited a marked (P < 0.01) impact on body weight gain. Still, it had a non-significant impact on FI and FCR. However, Abdulla et al. (2017) stated that adding SO to broiler diets improved (P < 0.05) live body weight and body weight gain at 6th wk of age compared to the diets supplemented with LO. In contrast, negative effects on body weight gain and FCR of adding LO in broiler chick diets were noticed by Puthpongsiriporn and Scheideler (2005). Also, Shahid et al. (2019) demonstrated that feeding Peking ducks on linseed-supplemented diets for up to 30 d decreases live body weight and weight gain linearly while FCR increases. These contradicting results could be related to the differences in oil properties, inclusion levels and timing, composition of diets and health status of birds.

According to Ferrini et al. (2008) and Poorghasemi et al. (2013), unsaturated fats can improve digestibility, palatability, energy utilization, and absorption of vitamins. Huo et al. (2019) reported that the digestibility of crude fat in SO and LO-treated broilers was greater than that in Lard-treated broilers. Sanz et al. (2000) stated that calories from saturated fats are mostly stored as fat, while calories from unsaturated fats are mostly used for various metabolic functions. Popescu et al. (2021) state that the n-3 FAs increase bile secretion and enhance intestinal lipid digestion. Wei et al. (2013) stated that providing growing pigs with n-3-rich diets enhanced the synthesizing of muscular proteins by activating insulin receptors and promoting the expression of muscular IGF-1, which enhances growth and development. As mentioned by Sahib et al. 2012, n-3 FAs have the potential to improve the release of serotonin and dopamine, resulting in reduced stress and making animals feel calm, which subsequently boosts animal health and productivity.

In this investigation, no considerable influences (P > 0.05) of the various levels of SO or LO on the tested carcass yield parameters were observed. These findings were previously affirmed by Raj Manohar (2020), who revealed no significant effect of dietary LO and fish oil at different levels (2 and 4%) on the relative weights of carcass, dressing, and giblets. Also, López-Ferrer et al. (2001) detected non-significant variations in dressing (%) in response to providing broiler chicks with n-3 FAs-rich oil. In addition, Huo et al. (2019) included 0.5% of SO and LO in broiler diets and recorded no significant impact on the relative weights of the heart and liver. The absence of marked effects (P > 0.05) on carcass traits may be related to the short-term dietary administration with different oil sources and levels.

Different treatments (Oil sources and levels) did not exert marked impacts (P > 0.05) on most of the blood protein fractions except G-GLO. Quail fed diets containing either 2% SO, 1.5% LO, or 2% LO had the highest (P = 0.05) values of gamma globulins compared to the control. Most gamma globulins are immunoglobulins; however, some immunoglobulins are not gamma globulins, and conversely, there are gamma globulins that are not classified as immunoglobulins (Gaw et al., 2013). So, the increase in gamma globulins values could be associated with increased IgG and IgM levels (Table 6). Ghobashy et al. (2023) mentioned that omega FAs enhance the release of immunoglobulins (IgG and IgM). Comparable findings were discovered by Huo et al. (2019), who found no alterations (P > 0.05) in serum content of TP, albumin, and globulin in broilers provided with diets including SO and LO, compared with the lard-provided group. Reda et al. (2020) stated that SO-treated quail exhibited higher serum levels of TP, whereas the LO-treated group exhibited higher serum albumin levels. Michel (2002) noted a statistical rise in globulin levels in quail fed diets with fish oil compared to quail-received SO-included diets. Also, Jameel et al. (2017) fed broilers on diets containing 0.25 or 0.5% LO and investigated significant improvements in serum TP and globulin, but serum albumin levels showed nonsignificant changes. The authors attributed these results to the higher antibody production since they detected significant increments in total antibody titers to Newcastle disease virus (NDV) and lymphoid organs' weights (bursa % and spleen %) in LO-treated groups.

The effects of various levels of SO or LO in growing quail diets on blood lipid panels are clarified in Table 5. Our results suggest that using SO or LO inhibits lipogenesis, with more potential effects of LO than SO. The higher consumption of PUFAs may decrease the possibility of cardiovascular problems and other health disorders related to the disorder of blood lipid profile (Harris et al., 2007). Reduced plasma concentrations of triglycerides result from decreased hepatic lipogenesis since triglycerides are released into the bloodstream, included in lipoproteins (Zhou et al., 2009; Mahgoub et al., 2019). The lower plasma content of triglycerides in high-PUFAs-treated birds, compared to animal fat-treated ones, may be due to the high β-oxidative rate of these FAs, which in turn removes triglycerides from the bloodstream to the tissues (Shunthwal and Sheoran, 2017).

According to Morise et al. (2004), the reduction in blood total cholesterol in response to dietary inclusion of SO and LO could be linked to the decrease in both cholesterol types (free and esterified). The same authors reported that n-3 FAs in LO enhance the cholesterol secretion in the bile and the cholesterol turnover. The present outcomes match Reda et al. (2020), who noted that dietary LO and SO significantly decreased the concentration of total cholesterol and triglycerides in Japanese quail blood. In addition, Huo et al. (2019) stated that triglycerides and total cholesterol in broiler blood were lessened (P < 0.05) by dietary inclusion of 0.5% SO and LO compared to lard treatment. Fébel et al. (2008) stated lower plasma total cholesterol and triglycerides levels in broiler chicks that received feeds with LO or SO compared to those that received animal fats.

Shahid et al. (2019) cited that serum triglycerides, VLDL-c, and LDL-c were linearly decreased while HDL-c levels were linearly elevated by feeding Peking duck on linseed-supplemented diets for up to 30 d. El-Rayes et al. (2023) included SO, LO, or sunflower oil in laying hen diets at various levels. The results indicated that using LO decreased plasma concentrations of albumin, triglycerides, total cholesterol, and LDL-c but heightened plasma concentrations of HDL-c. Recently, Sokoła-Wysoczańska et al. (2024) noted that rat groups supplemented with LO had significantly lower blood triglycerides, total cholesterol, and LDL-c levels and significantly higher blood HDL-c levels than the control group.

Transaminases (AST and ALT), creatinine, urea, and uric acid are the most abundant tests to evaluate liver and kidney functionality and tissue integrity. High circulatory concentrations of these parameters refer to a malfunction of these organs. Our findings revealed that feeding quail on diets with SO or LO improved liver and kidney function, as indicated by lower AST, ALT, creatinine, and uric acid (Table 6). Such effects of these oils are probably due to the antioxidant properties of n-3 FAs, which are possibly helpful in enhancing antioxidants against the oxidative stress that damage the renal filtration rate and the liver tissue.

Also, Kelley et al. (2009) attributed these positive impacts to the anti-inflammatory and antioxidant properties of n-3 FAs. Studies by Gopinath et al. (2011) suggest that n-3 FAs could inhibit the failure in the renal functionality of elderly humans who consume more n-3 FAs. According to Abeywardena (2001), dietary n-3 FAs may exert beneficial effects on renal function by 1) increasing prostaglandin levels and decreasing thromboxane levels, which in turn improve renal hemodynamics and glomerular filtration rate (GFR), 2) enhancing mitochondrial function and ATP generating efficiency which led to better renal energy metabolism; 3) changing the lipid composition of the cell membrane which led to an improvement in endothelial function. Vell et al. (2023) suggested that n-3 FAs could decrease the rate of liver disease. According to Madkour and Abdel-Daim (2013), n-3 FAs-rich feeds exert a hepatic-protecting effect by inducing the regenerative process of hepatocytes, hence reducing the leak of liver enzymes into the bloodstream.

Qiu et al. (2012) recorded marked decreases in IL-6 and TNF-α (pro-inflammatory cytokines) and marked increases in IL-4 and IL-10 (anti-inflammatory cytokines) in the n-3 FAs –treated rats in comparison with the control. In addition, administering n-3 FAs promotes hepatic regeneration and inhibits acute hepatic failure of 90%-hepatectomized rats. Our results in Table 7 affirmed these protective effects of PUFAs as indicated by the improvements in immune function and antioxidant status, which protect organ tissues and support their functions. Jameel et al. (2017) noted comparable results in broilers fed on diets containing 0.25 or 0.5% LO and investigated significant improvements in AST, ALT, and ALP. Also, Al-Daraji et al. (2010) recorded the inhibited transaminase activities in LO-treated quail semen. Shahid et al. (2019) stated that feeding Peking duck on linseed-supplemented diets for up to 30 d decreased serum AST linearly, while ALT values were unaffected significantly.

Ahmed (2019) also stated lowered uric acid levels by supplementing quails' diets with chia seeds. Conversely, Dong et al. (2018) showed that serum AST and uric acid concentrations were elevated significantly in layers fed on diets including fish oil during the first two months of the trial. Alagawany et al. (2020) found that growing quails received feeds with chia oil (n-3-rich oil) increased ALT activity but did not alter AST activity and creatinine levels, while serum urea levels were significantly decreased. El-Rayes et al. (2023) showed that AST and ALT blood activities were not markedly affected in laying hens fed on diets containing SO or LO at 1, 1.5, and 2%.

Immunoglobulins are a class of structurally similar compounds that exhibit antibody function. Bloodstream concentrations of immunoglobulins are good indicators of the immune response (Fahey, 1965). Ghobashy et al. (2023) stated that PUFAs supplementation impacts both humoral and cell-mediated immune responses in poultry. Our results in Table 7 indicated that values of IgG and M were greater in birds consumed diets with LO or SO than in those consumed the control diet. Moreover, the effect of LO was superior to that of SO.

Consistent with these results, Alagawany et al. (2019) reported that n-3 FAs are better at enhancing immunological responses than n-6 FAs. Guo et al. (2004) proved that the production of antibodies was enhanced in chickens fed on n-3 FAs-rich oils (fish oil and LO) than in chickens fed maize oil (rich in n-6 PUFAs). Also, Jameel et al. (2017) investigated significant improvements in total antibody production against NDV when broilers fed on diets containing 0.25 or 0.5% LO on d 15 and 30 of age. Obaid and Jameel (2023) replaced 7.5% and 10% of corn with linseed in broiler starter and finisher diets, respectively, and documented enhancements in immune responses, as indicated by antibody titer values against ND and IBD.

Additionally, Alagawany et al. (2020) indicated that including chia oil (a rich source of n-3 FAs) in growing quail diets improved the immune status. Supporting these results, Asad et al. (2019) documented better immunological reactions in broiler chicks consumed diets containing chia seeds. Rodríguez-Cruz and Serna (2017) noted that PUFAs aid in activating transcription factors and altering gene expression via regulating signal transmission in immune cells. The proliferation, function, maturation, and cytokine release of splenocytes, heterophils, and lymphocytes are impacted by n-3 FAs, which affect the formation of IgG and IgM (Ghobashy et al., 2023). Chick immunity at early stages highly depends on omega 3 and 6 FAs because these FAs regulate inflammation and boost cellular and humoral immunity (Cherian, 2015). Additionally, these FAs aid in maintaining cell membrane integrity, which is necessary for reducing the risk of infection and the entry of pathogenic microbes (Wang et al., 2002). According to Al-Zuhairy and Jameel (2014), n-3 PUFAs exhibit activities against inflammation by inhibiting the production of eicosanoids and pro-inflammatory cytokines.

Evaluating MDA, the primary byproduct of lipid peroxidation, might reflect the extent of damage caused by peroxidation (Raei et al., 2021; Demir et al., 2023). TAC test is usual practice to evaluate the body's antioxidant status against free radicals (Nadeem et al. 2014). SOD is considered one of the most vital enzymes in the body that neutralizes free radicals (Umit et al., 2011). Thus, the higher activity of the antioxidant enzyme may indicate better defense against damage from free radicals. According to the values of MDA, TAC, and SOD in Table 7, our results show that the inclusion of different oil sources and levels improved antioxidant status, with a greater effect of LO than SO. These findings are comparable to Aziza et al. (2016), who stated that chicken groups that consumed feeds included 3% and 5% LO showed reduced MDA serum values and higher TAC serum values.

Moreover, Fébel et al. (2008) documented a remarkable improvement in radical scavenging capacity and a significant decrease in MDA levels in blood plasma obtained from chicks receiving diets with LO compared to SO-treated groups. In the same context, El-Rayes et al. (2023) recorded the maximum values of TAC and SOD, beside the minimum levels of MDA in the blood plasma of laying hens fed diets with 2% LO followed by those fed diets with 1.5% LO, when compared to other groups that fed sunflower oil or SO. Shahid et al. (2019) reported that feeding Peking ducks on linseed-supplemented diets for up to 30 d decreased levels of MDA but did not affect SOD activity. Other plant n-3-rich sources, like chia seeds, exert the same protecting impact against free radicals (Nadeem et al. 2014).

Conversely, Huo et al. (2019) reported that the inclusion of 5% SO and LO in broiler diets did not affect SOD activity compared to the lard-included group. According to Attia et al. (2011), n-3 FAs can exert their antioxidant characteristics by scavenging free reactive oxygen species, inhibiting their production, or boosting endogenous antioxidant activities. As reported by Musazadeh et al. (2021), LO contains phytoestrogens that regulate lipid metabolism and capture free radicals, which activate lipid peroxidation processes.

CONCLUSIONS

This study showed that supplementing growing quail diets with either soybean or linseed oils up to 2% could yield favorable effects on growth performance, lipid profile, hepatic and renal functions, immunity, and antioxidant status. LO yielded more desirable effects than SO and the high levels for both oils were more effective than the lower ones. Therefore, further studies are needed to investigate the impact of higher levels of these oils, besides their mixtures, on poultry performance and health.

Acknowledgments

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The authors extend their appreciation to Taif University, Saudi Arabia for supporting this work through project number (TU- DSPP- 2024-238).

All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

DISCLOSURES

The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

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