A comprehensive review on pharmacognosy, phytochemistry and pharmacological activities of 8 potent Prunus species of southeast Asia

Abstract

Genus Prunus comprising around 430 species is a vast important genus of family Rosaceae, subfamily amygdalaoidae. Among all 430 species, around 19 important species are commonly found in Indian sub-continent due to their broad nutritional and economic importance. Some most common species of genus Prunus are Prunus amygdalus, Prunus persica, Prunus armeniaca, Prunus avium, Prunus cerasus, Prunus cerasoides, Prunus domestica, Prunus mahaleb, etc. A newly introduced species of Prunus i.e Prunus sunhangii is recently discovered which is morphologically very similar to Prunus cerasoides. Plants of Prunus species are short to medium-sized deciduous trees mainly found in the northern hemisphere. In India and its subcontinent, it extends from the Himalayas to Sikkim, Meghalaya, Bhutan, Myanmar etc. Different Prunus species have been extensively studied for their morphological, microscopic, pharmacological and phytoconstituents characteristics. Total phenolic content of Prunus species explains the presence of phenols in high quantity and pharmacological activity due to phenols. Phytochemical screening of species of genus Prunus shows the presence of wide phytoconstituents which contributes in their pharmacological significance and reveals the therapeutic potential and traditional medicinal significance of this genus. Genus Prunus showed a potent antioxidant activity analyzed by 1,1-diphenyl-2-picryl-hydrazyl radical assay. Plant species belonging to the genus Prunus is widely used traditionally for the treatment of various disorders. Some specific Prunus species possess potent anticancer, anti-inflammatory, hypoglycemic etc. activity which makes the genus more interesting for further research and findings. This review is an attempt to summarize the comprehensive study of Prunus

1. INTRODUCTION

Being the 19th most prominent family of plants, "Rosaceae" has its diversity and importance.^1,2 The name "Rosaceae" was first published by Michael Adanson. Still, “The International Code of Nomenclature for algae plants and fungi” (ICN) accepted Antoine Laurent de Jussieu as its initial autho.³

Genus Prunus belongs to the family Rosaceae, a subfamily Amygdalaceae.⁴ It consists of around 430 species of evergreen and deciduous trees and shrubs, mainly distributed in the northern hemisphere and temperate zones.^5,6 The species of the Prunus genus are having various characteristic features including leaf glands, an upper ovary, a single carpel, each carpel has two drooping artificial ovules, and stone fruit, which has a juicy mesocarp, fleshy or dry, and does not divide when mature, or in splits on its own in rare cases.⁷

Shi et al ¹⁰ divided the genus Prunus into three subgenera using DNA analysis, Cerasus, Padus, and Prunus.^8,⇓-10 Species name have been checked by “The plant list” http://www.theplantlist.org/ on 5/10/2022 at 16:30, and found that Prunus sunhangii a newly introduced species is not included in the list yet.

2. TRADITIONAL USES

The species of the genus Prunus are rich in phytoconstituents which are responsible for various medicinal properties. Prunus avium (L.) L. and Prunus cerasus L. (stems and seed extract shows cardioprotective activity.¹¹ The flowers and leaves of Prunus spinosa L. have lithotriptic and diuretic activity and are useful in peptic ulcers.¹² Prunus salicina Lindl. fruit is used to treat arthritis.¹³ The water extract of small branches of Prunus cerasoides Buch.-Ham. ex D.Don can be used as an anti-abortion agent.¹⁴ Leaves and flowers are used in the treatment of kidney stones and gravel illness. Its heartwood can also be used to treat skin discoloration and sprains.¹⁵

Fang et al ¹⁶ in his study using chicken chorioallantoic membrane and Matrigel plug assays, found that apigenin under normoxic conditions, blocks VEGF and HIF-1 expression in human ovarian cancer cells, and effectively reduces tumor angiogenesis in vivo.

Luteolin, another flavone found in Prunus species, showed antiproliferative activity in cancer cells and inhibits invasion of prostate cancer PC3 cells through E-cadherin.¹⁷ Luteolin prevents spontaneous lung metastasis of PC3 cells transplanted into nude mice in vivo which indicated that luteolin might be a potential treatment for aggressive cancer of the prostate gland.¹⁸

The flavonoid chrysin (20) is present in many species of the genus Prunus, including the Prunus cerasus L. and has been shown to have anticancer properties. It is an effective HIF-1 inhibitor and suggests new insights into the mechanism of action of chrysin (20) upon malignant tumors.¹⁹ In the 1,1-diphenyl-2-picryl-hydrazyl radical radical scavenging experiment, Kaempferol (14), quercitrin, and multiforin extracted from Prunus tomentosa Thunb. and Prunus persica (L.) Batsch showed intense antioxidant activity.²⁰

3. MEDICINAL AND ECONOMIC IMPORTANT SPECIES OF GENUS PRUNUS

Different species of the genus Prunus have different medicinal and economic importance. The most common 8 species of the genus Prunus having traditional medicinal importance and are commonly found in India are listed in Table 1.²¹

Table 1.

Medicinal and economic important species of genus Prunus

S. No.	Species	Common name	Part used	Reference
1	Prunus amygdalus Batsch	Almond (Badam)	Bark, stem, fruit	22
2	Prunus persica (L.) Batsch	Peach	Bark, stem, fruit and leaves	23
3	Prunus armeniaca L.	Apricot	Bark, seed kernels, fruit	24
4	Prunus cerasus L.	Sour cherry	Stem, leaves, and fruit	25
5	Prunus avium (L.) L.	Sweet cherry	Fruit and seeds	25
6	Prunus cerasoides Buch.-Ham. ex D.Don	Wild cherry	Stem, bark, leaves, and fruit	26
7	Prunus domestica L.	Common Plum/European Plum	Bark, heartwood, fruit and leaves	27
8	Prunus mahaleb L.	Mahaleb	Fruit	28

4. SPECIES AND THEIR GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION

Most of the species belonging to the genus Prunus originated from China and 19 species are found in India. All, these 8 species are widely distributed from Himachal (India) to Bhutan, Sikkim, Nepal, Thailand, Myanmar, and Western China.²⁹ They are also cultivated in the regions of Japan, and the US. The distribution of species and their medicinal importance are summarized in Table 2.

Table 2.

Species with their native and cultivation area and their medicinal aspects

S. No.	Species	Common name	Distribution	Medicinal aspect	Reference
1	Prunus amygdalus Batsch	Almond	Native of West Asia and grown in Baluchistan, Kashmir, Punjab, Afghanistan, Persia, and the Mediterranean region. The US is the largest producer yet grown in California.	Rich in nutrition, demulcent, stimulant, nervine tonic, lithotriptic, diuretic, emollient, laxative, and, a sedative in cough, deobstruent, aphro-disiac actions. Also valuable for cough and obstruction clearance of the liver and spleen, skin eruption, peptic ulcer, and intestinal colic. The astringent action of unripe fruit acts against gum and mouth sores and ulcers. The oil bears laxative property, and is helpful in mental disabilities; it also gives relief to neurological and kidney pain.	22
2	Prunus persica (L.) Batsch	Peach	Mainly found in temperate regions of Asia and Southern Europe	Bark has sedative, stomachic, demulcent, anti-scorbutic, diuretic, and expectorant activity. Leaves have anthelmintic activity. The plant has antidiabetic, antioxidant, antimicrobial, antitumor, anticarcinogenic, and cholinesterase inhibitory activity.	23
3	Prunus armeniaca L.	Apricot	Native to Asia and North-Eastern China. Distributed in the regions of North Korea, North China, Manchuria, North Eastern Mongolia and Khingan mountains. In India, it is mainly found in Northern India.	It is used as an analgesic, anti-asthmatic, anthe-lmintic, antipyretic, emollient, antispasmodic, demulcent, emetic, antiseptic, expectorant, laxative, ophthalmic, anticarcinogenic, sedative, anti-platelet, and antimicrobial agent.	24
4	Prunus cerasus L.	Sour cherry	It is distributed in areas of Europe and southwest Asia. In India, it is grown in the regions of Kashmir, Kumaun, and Gharwal.	Antidiabetic, immunomodulatory, enhanced sleep, antioxidant and antimicrobial activity.	25
5	Prunus avium (L.) L.	Sweet cherry	They are mainly distributed in north Russia and temperate regions of Europe.	The stem has a diuretic and astringent effect. They are mainly used for cystitis, urinary retention, nephritis, and arthritis.	25
6	Prunus cerasoides Buch.-Ham. ex D.Don	Wild cherry	Mainly found in the regions of Himachal Pradesh in North-Central India to Bhutan, Sikkim, Nepal, Thailand, Myanmar, and Western China. Distributed in the Gharwal hills in the temperate zone of Uttarakhand, including the Pauri, Tehri, Chamoli, and Utakahi regions. Grown in the Danolti and Gharwal regions.	Antibacterial, diuretic, BPH protective, antioxidant and cytotoxic activity.	26
7	Prunus domestica L.	Common plum	They are mainly distributed in the regions of south-eastern Europe and south-western Asia.	Hypotensive, antihyperlipidemic, antioxidant, anticancer, anxiolytic, Hepato-protective, Antimicrobial, GIT effect, and antidiabetic.	27

Prunus amygdalus Batsch Batsch (Almond), a plant of both medicinal and economic value is native to West Asia and also grown in Baluchistan, Punjab, Kashmir, Persia, Afghanistan, and the Mediterranean region. The US is the largest producer of almonds, cultivated mainly in California.³⁰ Gharwal hills in the temperate zone of Uttarakhand, including the Pauri Tehri, Chamoli, and Uttarkashi regions, also cultivated in the Danolti and Gharwal regions.³¹

5. MORPHOLOGY OF DIFFERENT SPECIES OF GENUS PRUNUS

Komarov, 1971 classified genus Prunus in different subgenera. Further, Strasburger et al,³² 1991 characterized these subgenera based on its unique morphological characteristics, such as the ripple pattern of the leaves in the bud, the inflorescence of the brush or brush, the size and color of the flower, the characteristics of the fruit, bones, and seed. Morphological characters of different species of Prunus are described in Table 3.

Table 3.

Morphological characters of species of genus Prunus

Species	Common name	Morphology			Reference
		Leaves	Flower	Fruit
Prunus amygdalus Batsch	Almond	The deciduous tree is 4-10 m high, the trunk diameter can reach 30 cm, the leaves are gray, oblong-lanceolate, and the petiole is equal to or longer than the maximum leaf width.	Flowers are white with a crimson tinge, 3-5cm in diameter with five petals, emerging before the leaves.	The drupe is 3.5 to 6 cm long and is pubescent. The flesh is hard and splits when mature, exposing the bones. The endocarp is thin or thick, flat, long, oval seeds with brownish seed coats, usually surrounded by each stone shell.	30
Prunus persica (L.) Batsch	Peach	10 m evergreen tree, leaves are conduplicate in the bud, 6.3-10 cm long, lanceolate, hairy on the midrib underneath when young serrate, and the bark is grey or ashy,	Its flowers are pinkish-white sessile, 2.5-3 cm in diameter with five petals and pedicelled.	Yellow whitish fruit with a delicate aroma, velvety and smooth skin, red-brown single large seed, 1.3-2 cm long and oval and surrounded by a wood-like husk.	3
Prunus armeniaca L.	Apricot	The tree has a height of 800-1200 cm, a trunk diameter of up to 0.4 m, and a dense canopy. The leaves are ovate, 5-9 cm long, 4-8 cm wide, with round base, pointed tips, and serrated edges.	2-4.5cm five petals flowers pinkish at first then white, leaves after the flower, fascicled, short pedicel	Drupe 1.5-2.5 cm Smooth or glabrous, smooth or velvety skin, yellowish, reddish, smooth stones with thick bevels.	33
Prunus cerasus L.	Sour cherry	Its height ranges from 4 to 10 meters. ovate, rigid leaves round-topped or spreading and have root suckers	2-5 m long, white, clustered on thin pedicles, 2-4 cm long, stiff and abruptly pointed, minutely toothed	Fruits are globose, 0.6-1.25 cm in diameter, and appear with the leaves. Bright crimson to nearly black, acidic or sweet Bark is a kind of tree astringent, bitter fruit with a tart and sweet flavor.	34
Prunus avium (L.) L.	Sweet cherry	Similar to cerasus, but does not form rhizomes, loose leaves, thicker teeth, two glands at the top of the petiole	Buds are leafless but have larger reflective scales; sepals are usually intact	Blackish fruit, sweet, peduncles up to 5 cm long	35
Prunus cerasoides Buch.-Ham. ex D.Don	Himalayan wild cherry	Medium to large trees, mahogany, and horizontal bars. The leaves are smooth and hairless, ovate, long, and strongly serrated. The leaves are 7.5-12.5 cm long, and the petioles are 1.3 cm long.	White, pink, or crimson flowers appear in umbrella-like clusters in front of the leaves at the ends of branches.	The fruit is yellow-red, oval or spherical, 1.32 cm long	36
Prunus domestica L.	European plum/ common plum	An unarmed tree with glabrous branches, pubescent pedicles, and	Thorny, white blossom, borne in early spring	8 cm big, oblong, hanging drupes of purple-blackish color	37
Prunus mahaleb L.	Mahaleb	Upright heavily branched shrub, 1.5-5 cm long oval spreading leaves, subrounded ovate, briefly acuminate subcordate obtusely serrate.	Floral, pure white, small, 8 to 20 mm in diameter, 8 to 15 mm long stem, 3 to 10 racemes in 3 to 4 cm long racemes.	This fruit is a small cherry-colored drupe with thin flesh and a bitter taste. It is first green, then scarlet, and dark purple or black when mature.	38, 39

6. CHEMICAL CONSTITUENTS OF GENUS PRUNUS

Genus Prunus is rich in phytoconstituents including saponins, sterols, alkaloids, terpenoids, flavonoids, tannins, and phenolic acid are the main phytoconstituents responsible for pharmacological activities. Table 4 shows the presence of various phytoconstituents in methanol extract of different species of Prunus,⁴⁰ and the compounds isolated from them are summarized in Table 5.^{41,⇓,⇓,⇓,⇓,⇓,⇓,⇓,⇓,⇓,⇓,⇓,⇓,⇓,⇓,⇓,⇓,⇓,⇓,⇓,⇓,⇓,⇓,⇓,⇓,⇓,⇓,⇓,⇓,⇓,⇓,⇓,⇓-74} A brief chart of a chemical constituent of 8 medicinally important Prunus species with their pharmacological activity has been given in Table 6.⁴⁰

Table 4.

Phytochemical screening of species of Prunus

Species	Terpenoids	Alkaloids	Flavanoids	Phenolic acid	Tannins
Prunus amygdalus Batsch	++	++	++	++	++
Prunus persica (L.) Batsch	--	--	++	++	++
Prunus armeniaca L.	++	++	++	++	++
Prunus cerasus L.	--	++	++	++	++
Prunus avium (L.) L.	--	++	++	++	++
Prunus cerasoides Buch.-Ham. ex D.Don	++	--	++	++	++
Prunus domestica L.	++	++	++	++	++
Prunus mahaleb L.	--	--	++	++	++

Notes: ++: Present; --: absent.

Table 5.

Chemical constituents of 8 Prunus species

Species	Flavanoids	Steroids/terpenes	Phenolic acid	Coumarins	Carotenoids
Prunus amygdalus Batsch	Naringenin, Prunin, Isoquercetrin	Amygdaloside, Amygdalactone, Betulinic acid, Maslinic acid	5-O-Caffeoyl quinic acid, chlorogenic acid, protocatechuic acid	Coumarinic acid
Prunus persica (L.) Batsch	Hesperetin 5-O-ß-D-glucoside, Naringenin, Persiconin, Prunin/Naringenin 7-O-ß-D glucopyranoside Isoquercetrin, Kaempferol	5-Avenasterol, 2,3-Dihydroxy olean-12-en-28-oic acid, 2,3 Dihydroxyurs-12-en-28-oic acid	cis, trans (+) Abscisic acid, Chlorogenic acid		Trans-Au roxanthin, Carotene, Lutein, Zeaxanthin
Prunus armeniaca L.	3,4´,5,7- Tetrahydroxy-3ʹ,5´-di-methoxy flavone 3-O-[α-L-rhamnopyranosyl (1"'→6"')-ß-D-galactopyranoside, Naringenin, Kaempferol, Prunin, Isoquercetrin	α-Amyrin acetate 5-Avenasterol Cholesterol, Estrone	5-O-Caffeoylquinic acid p-Coumaric acid Chlorogenic acid Protocatechuic acid		Carotene Lycopene
Prunus cerasus L.	Apigenin-5-glucoside, Chrysin, 6,7-Dimethoxy-5,8,4'-trihydroxyflavone, Glucogenkwanin, Tectochrysin, Tectochrysin- 5-glucoside, Cerasinone, Dihydrotectochrysin, Naringenin, Sakuranetin, Isoquercetrin, Kaempferol	5-Avenasterol 7-Avenasterol	Caffeic acid, 5-O-Caffeoylquinic acid, p-Coumaric acid, Chlorogenic acid, Protocatechuic acid		Carotene Lutein Zeaxanthin
Prunus avium (L.) L.	Aequinoctin or chrysin-7-glucoside, Chrysin, Chrysin-7-O-glucoside, Galangin, Jaceidin, Tectochrysin, Dihydrotectochrysin, Naringenin, Prunin, Sakuranetin, Kaempferol		Caffeic acid p-Coumaric acid o-Coumaric acid Chlorogenic acid
Prunus cerasoides Buch.-Ham. ex D.Don	Glucogenkwanin Naringenin Naringenin-4'-methylether-7-xyloside Naringenin-4'-O-methylliquiritigenin-7-O-α-L-rhamnopyranoside Naringenin-5-O—L rhamnopyranoside Puddumin-A Puddumin-B Afzelin	ß-sitosterol Ursolic acid
Prunus domestica L.	Chrysin Isosakuranetin Naringenin Isoquercetrin Kaempferol	5-Avenasterol	cis, trans (+) Abscisic acid, Caffeic acid, 5-O-Caffeoylquinic acid, p-Coumaric acid, Chlorogenic acid, Protocatechuic acid, Vanillic acid	Fraxinol Magnolioside	Apo12'-violaxanthal-Carotene Lutein
Prunus mahaleb L.	Naringenin Prunin or Naringenin 7-O-ß-D-glucopyranoside Kaempferol		o-Coumaric acid	Coumarin Esculetin Herniarin Herniarin glucoside Mahaleboside Umbelliferone

Table 6.

Chemical constituents of different Prunus species and their pharmacological activity

Species	Chemical constituents	Pharmacological action	Reference
Prunus amygdalus Batsch	Betulinic acid	Anti-proliferative activity	75
	Chlorogenic acid	Anti-ulcer, antimicrobial, antioxidant, anti-aging	76
	Amygdalactone	Anti-proliferative, anti-platelet	75
	Naringenin	Anti-estrogen, anti-oxidant	77
	Kaempferol	Antimicrobial against herpes-simplex virus, antioxidant	78
	Amygdaloside	Anti-inflammatory, antitumor, antibacterial, and analgesic activities	62
Prunus persica (L.) Batsch	Hesperetin	Anti-hyperlipidemia, anti-inflammatory	78
	Genistein	Cardioprotective treats osteoporosis	79
	Oleanolic acid	Anti-inflammatory, anti-arthritic agent, anti-lipase activity	80
	Zeaxanthin	Antioxidant	81
	Lutein	Visual disorders and cognition disease	72
Prunus armeniaca L. L	Naringenin	Anti-estrogen, antioxidant	82
	Kaempferol	Antimicrobial against herpes simplex virus	78
	Isoquercitrin	Anticancer	83
	Estrone	Anticancer	83
	Carotene	Antioxidant	81
	Lycopene	Anti-inflammatory, anti-proliferative	81
Prunus cerasus L.	Cyanidin	Antioxidant, anti-inflammatory	84
	Apigenin-5-glucoside	BZD antagonist	85
	Tectochrysin	Anti-tumor	44
	Naringenin	Anti-estrogen	82
	Sakuranetin	Anti-cancer	86
	Isoquercitrin	Anti-oxidant	83
	Kaempferol	Anti-microbial	78
Prunus avium (L.) L.	Kaempferol	Antioxidant antimicrobial	78
	Galangin	Antioxidant, anti-fibrotic, antibacterial	87
	Jaceidin	Anti-tumour	88
	Tectochrysin	Anti-tumour	44
	Naringenin	Anti-estrogen	82
	Sakuranetin	Anti-cancer	86
Prunus cerasoides Buch.-Ham. ex D.Don	Apigenin	BZD antagonist	85
	Beta-sitosterol	Antimicrobial, anti-hyperlipidemic, BPH	89
	Sakuranetin	Anticancer	86
	Prunetin	Anti-inflammatory	90
	Genkwanin	Anti-inflammatory	90
	Ursolic acid	Cardioprotective	91
Prunus domestica L.	L-ascorbic acid	Antioxidant activity	92
	NeoChlorogenic acid	Neuroprotective effect	93
	Quercetin-3-o-rutinoside	Anticancer	94
	Quercetin-3-o-glucoside	Anti-diabetic and anti-oxidant	95
	Methyl-3-caffeoylquinic	Antioxidant	96
	Chlorogenic acid	Hepatoprotective, anxiolytic	97
	Protocatechuic acid	Antibacterial, anticancer	98
Prunus mahaleb L.	Coumarin	Anti-coagulant, anti-inflammatory	70
	Dihydrocoumarin	Antioxidant and antitumor	28
	Esculetin	MAO inhibitor, AChE inhibitor	99
	Herniarin	Cytotoxic	99
	Umbelliferone	Anti-hypoglycemic, antitumor	100
	Kaempferol	Anti-oxidant, antimicrobial	78
	Naringenin	Anti-estrogen, anti-oxidant	84

7. COMMERCIAL PREPARATIONS OF PRUNUS SPECIES:

Various species of genus Prunus are available in market either in the form of pure herbal extract or in a composition for the treatment of various ailments and disorder. Commercial preparations of Prunus species available in market and its composition are summarized in Table 7.

Table 7.

Commercial preparations of Prunus species

Brand name	Part used	Use	Marketed by
Roghan Badam Shireen	Ripe kernels of Prunus amygdalus.	Sharpens brain, headache spasm, insomnia.	Dabur
Peach Kernel Oil	Kernels	It soothes redness and swollen skin. It hydrates and moisturizes dry skin. It improves skin elasticity and leaves a soft touch It slows down the aging process and deals with the fine lines and wrinkles	Salvia
Coldpress Apricot Carrier Oil	Kernels of Prunus armeniaca	skin retain elasticity, clarity, and suppleness	Naturalis
Peach liquid extract	Peach Fruit extract	It works as a natural moisturizer. Vitamin C and E are antioxidants present in peach that helps wound recover faster and prevent aging of the skin by reducing oxygen-free radicals.	Herbal creations
Old Indian Cherry Bark Syrup	Apricot seed, Black cherry bark	Boost immunity	Planetary herbals

8. CONCLUSION

Prunus has a diverse species and varietal biodiversity that is found in wild, semi-wild, and cultivated forms all over the world. Research has been done on the Prunus species and its pharmacological activity. However, many species widely used by local people are not yet explored much. The Discovery of the new species Prunus sunhangii opens a new door to research on the Prunus genus. Phytochemical studies have shown that different parts of plants of the genus Prunus contain different types of phytochemical compounds, which are the key factors for its wide pharmacological properties. This genus also has great ethnomedicinal significance and is used to treat medical illnesses traditionally. This study helps us to understand the similarity and differences in Prunus species, phytoconstituents present in various species, and their pharmacological and medicinal significance.

9. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

The authors are thankful to DST-FIST for proving infrastructural support for this study.