Environmental education in Ethiopia: History, mainstreaming in curriculum, governmental structure, and its effectiveness: A systematic review

Abstract

Environmental education works to achieve the aims of environmental protection through improving a person's environmental awareness, knowledge, attitudes, skills, active engagement, and drive to better the environment. Through a systematic review of various published and unpublished papers, governmental documents, reports, policies, curriculums, and sample surveys of different governmental sectors, this systematic review aimed to ascertain the mainstreaming of both formal and informal environmental education in the curriculum, governmental structure, its effectiveness, and identify the gap that will need to be filled in Ethiopia. So, the objective of this review is to give a good synopsis of environmental education development, point out any gaps that will need to be filled, and provide insights into its future development. The legal environmental right established in the 1995 Ethiopian constitution served as the driving force behind official environmental education and environmental response. As a result, environmental science has been assigned as a separate or autonomous subject in grades 1–4, as well as in many higher education programs and specializations. On the other hand, in secondary cycle primary school (grades five up to eight) as well as secondary school; environmental education uses a cross-curricula approach in a few natural and social subjects, which is marginalized, and covers only a few topics (titles) of the subjects. Environmental clubs and experts in environmental matters are also available at all levels within the non-formal environmental education system, which spans the federal, regional, district, and other cross-sectional sectors. However, there is a gap due to a lack of professional human resources, monitoring, evaluation, commitment, and expanding best practices, as well as the absence of integration among sectors. As a result, the governmental structure, educational policy, and curriculum demand updates with adequate environmental education experts. Environmental content should be incorporated at the governmental structure and all educational levels with proper implementation, either as standalone subjects or as diffused or integrated on equal footing at every subject level. Additionally, more research on environmental education is required.

1. Introduction

Increasing people's awareness of the environment and the problems associated with it is the goal of environmental education (EE) [1,2]; and an all-encompassing plan to increase people's environmental protection objectives by enhancing individuals' awareness, skills, expertise, values, information, attitudes, and motivation to improve the environment [[2], [3], [4], [5]]. Several academics define EE as an education for, through, and about the environment [[3], [4], [5], [6]]. Even though nations such as Canada have effectively used outdoor, natural education for young children while keeping in mind the UN 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development, nature-based initiatives that take place outside can assist in addressing many sustainable development goals as well as foster the advancement of young generations critical capabilities required to interact with sustainability concerns through the use Many ways to teaching and learning that are exclusively “in,” “about,” as well as “for” environment-conditions [[6], [7], [8]]; Denmark further created, employed, and put into operation a plan known as Education for Sustainable Development. The Sustainable Development Education Agenda, 2005–2014 [9]. Similar to this, environmental education (EE) was infused into the curricula at all school levels in Tanzania, Taiwan, India, and Canada. The EE aims to advance indigenous wisdom and field-based, practical learning about environmental challenges on a regional, national, and global scale at every grade level. It is about, in/through, and for the environment [7,[10], [11], [12], [13], [14]].

The UN as well as various nation-states are proactively employing this tactic to promote environmental, economic, and cooperative social interaction linkages. Numerous international initiatives, such as community development programs and awareness campaigns, are being carried out in several countries in this area [5,[15], [16], [17]].

The Education for Sustainable Development (ESD) aims to enhance ESD, and expedite the local acceptance of sustainable solutions [18,19], and improve full fulfillment of the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) of the Millennium [20]. Priority must be given to policy development, training and learning environment transformation, educator and trainer capacity building, youth mobilization, and developing education for sustainable development to build a world that is more equitable and sustainable by 2030 [2].

To promote the following three goals, EE is commonly believed to be a methodology, a philosophy, a tool, and a profession; (1) to raise awareness of the interdependence of economic, social, political, and environmental resources in urban and rural areas; (2) to give everyone the same opportunity to gain the skills, morals, attitudes, dedication, and abilities needed to address environmental issues and enhance the quality of the environment; and (3) to foster the development of better environmental protection behaviors in people, communities, and society at large [2,5,16].

It is both multidisciplinary and interdisciplinary, serving as general education for decision-makers, policymakers, the public, and society at large without regard to age or gender, in addition to formal pedagogy (schooling students) [1,21,22]. EE can be formal or informal (casual). The purpose of formal education is characterized as having a set duration and a well-defined and structured curriculum and is provided in places such as elementary, secondary, and university schools, colleges, and universities [23]; Additionally, it is essential for educating the younger and grassroots citizens, developing cognitive frameworks for understanding the issue related the natural world, thinking through and interpreting environmental problems, and establishing the necessary awareness, aptitude, knowledge, and mindset to start helping to solve local environmental issues [15,18,24,25]. Conversely, learning that occurs outside of official educational settings is referred to as informal and/or non-formal education of official educational systems, like in larger public settings. This non-formal/informal EE is obtained through daily encounters, individual reading, club activities about environmental preservation, job training, community centers, and mass media, including radio, television, the internet, documentaries, etc. [26].

2. Aims and functions of EE in solving and handling environmental issues

Education for Achievement of Sustainability (SDs): A Roadmap by 2030, the United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization published (2020), states that all students should graduate with the abilities and understanding required to promote sustainable development. It includes teaching them about sustainable lifestyles and rights of people, gender equality, and sustainable development, and the advancement of a mentality that nonviolence as well as respect for cultural variety, global citizenship, and the function that culture performs in advancing achievement of sustainability growth [5,6,15,[27], [28], [29]].

To ensure that everyone has access to opportunities for lifelong learning about the achievement of sustainability growth, the UN Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization (2020): Education for Sustainable Development: A Roadmap on Sustainable Development by 2030 calls for advocates for the incorporation of education for sustainable development (ESD) into all educational and training programs, including technical and vocational education and training (TVET), from early childhood to adult education, at all levels of education and informal learning/education. Additionally, it calls for the establishment of ESD as a fundamental component of environmental, climate variability, and climate change action across all educational systems, serving as the foundational curriculum element, all while preserving a comprehensive viewpoint on ESD that acknowledges each aspect of sustainable development's interconnectedness [2,4,5,16,27].

In addition to protecting the naturally occurring environment and promoting environmental education, EE also considers the constructed environment and the social, political, cultural, and economic well-being of human populations [2,4,5,16]. EE teaches about the value and functions of the natural world, the impact of humans on environmental deterioration, and how to manage resources sustainably to create a more sustainable future for everybody [30,31]. EE also plays a basic role in avoiding and minimizing environmental problems and poverty [32].

The three main tenets of the SDG Education 2030 vision are fairness and inclusion, lifelong learning, and high-quality education (focusing on learning outcomes and relevance). UNESCO coordinates and oversees regional and worldwide efforts to advance SDG Education 2030 [2,4,5,16].

Educating people about environmental challenges and potential remedies is the goal of environmental education [2,16,17], and to establish the groundwork for each individual to actively and fully participate in environmental conservation and wise utilization of natural resources. The following guiding concepts for environmental education are provided by the resolutions (resolution 72/222 and resolution 57/254): 1. The environment as a shared human legacy; 2. The obligation of all people to preserve, protect, and enhance the environment's quality to preserve ecological balance and human health; how each person can protect the environment through his or her behavior and actions; 3. The final goals of EE are to enhance the management of the environment as well as offer appropriate solutions to environmental problems; 4. Offer chances to obtain the information, principles, dispositions, dedication, and abilities required to preserve and enhance the environment and promote proactive involvement in addressing environmental issues; 5. Environmental education is intimately connected to other subject areas' cross-cutting themes [2,4,5,16,27].

Knowledge, attitudes, practical skills, values, and motivation enable people to engage in responsible and effective ways to improve the environment, natural surroundings, environmental problems, and the interdependencies between environmental development and economic, social, and cultural development [2,21,23,33]. The development of problem-based solutions, active public engagement when making decisions on the environment, and the production of environmentally conscious as well as capable citizens are all crucial to establishing and improving the quality of the environment [16,21,26,27]. Consequently, persons who are environmentally literate and knowledgeable grow creative, acquire the skills, information, and mindset necessary to solve environmental issues, and make environmentally responsible judgments [2,16,21,34].

Both the 1994 and 2022 versions of Ethiopia's education and training policies were introduced; they provide an overview and outline the following broad and targeted goals concerning EE specifically as well as the environment generally: The overall objectives of education should be in line with the requirements of the environment and society to foster citizens' capacity for cognition, creativity, productivity, and appreciation. With particular objectives: to preserve the nation's natural resources and historical legacies, and to educate people who can become citizens with perspectives on the environment that are both national and worldwide [35,36].

Determining the history, integration, and mainstreaming of EE in the curriculum, government, and effectiveness of the UN Education, Scientific, and Cultural Organization (2020): Education for Sustainable Development: A Roadmap on Sustainable Development by 2030 calls for the incorporation of Education for Sustainable Development (ESD) into all educational and training programs, including technical and vocational education and training (TVET), from early childhood to adult education, at all levels of education and informal learning/education, was the goal of this systematic review study, which additionally sought to offer new perspectives to scholars and decision-makers.

3. Methods

The qualitative techniques of systematic reviewing and analysis were used to plan this review [19,37], resulting in an assessment of the mainstreaming of both environmental education approaches in the curriculum, governmental structure, and its effectiveness in Ethiopia. The documents that could be found on the internet only in English were available for search, whereas analyzing governmental career documents/civil service career structure was available in English, national Amharic languages, and local Tigrigna languages. The secondary sources that were released almost after 1990 served as the study's foundation, when environmental education was updated as well as put on the global issue, and their aimed to cover a wide range of secondary materials, including unpublished thesis and official papers like the proclamation, curriculums, policies, and constitutions, civil service career documents (governmental career structure), as well as published conference international reports, keynote speeches, unpublished and published papers, notebooks, and other resources gleaned from the research area's online searches.

Civil service offices in the Tigray region provided the majority of the civil service career documents or governmental structures. Since the governmental structures of Ethiopia's ten regional states are nearly identical, the author chose the Tigray Region as the study subject because of its relatively high levels of environmental protection concern and informational accessibility. The author was also able to address all sectors within the region at the regional, zonal, and district levels. This allowed the author to investigate informal EE at regional, zonal, and district levels.

Study selection

Following the examination of the papers/documents and a preliminary screening to check the relevance of the topic, content relevance, scope of the study/document, publishing time, etc., the author removes the irrelevance and duplicated contents (as shown in Fig. 1) and examines the studies on their own, discussing the final records and evaluating the titles, relevance, and abstracts of each study. The author then looked over the chosen papers' whole contents to make sure they met the requirements (published in reputable and scientific journals, as much as possible updated and published after 1990, highly focused on both formal and informal/non-formal EE in Ethiopia, written in English, Amharic (national language), or Tigrigna (local language), and then to access the governmental structure focused on environmental protection and EE related governmental structures (sectors)). The independently evaluated studies' titles, abstracts, and eligibility requirements were discussed to reach a final choice. As shown in Fig. 1, the Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis Preferred Reporting Items (PRISMA) [38,39] of 81 papers (research papers and governmental documents) were qualified for this systematic review. This includes 18 official documents, such as civil service career documents/governmental career structures for civil servants, policies, proclamations, and guidelines; 5 published books, notebooks, and keynote speeches; and 50 published articles. It also includes 8 unpublished theses, 6 MSc theses from Addis Ababa University, 1 MSc thesis from Oslo University, and 1 PhD thesis from Addis Ababa University. In addition, Tigray Regional State, at regional, zonal, and district levels, assessed informal EE from the civil service organization at environmental-related sectors and offices. The civil service career document (governmental career structure), and job descriptions that need or incorporate environmentalists and environmental experts that contributed to enhancing EE and environmental protection were addressed using (whether there are any environmental protection and EE-related governmental structures in each sector. If there are what are the role and responsibilities of the expert (profession), as well as the goal of the department/sector? What are the professions of the experts (have the basic knowledge and skills in EE and environmental protection), and is EE mainstreaming in each sector) (as shown in Table 1 and Table 2).

Fig. 1.

The author has developed the conceptualization study selection of the PRISMA flow diagram for the summary of study selection according to (Page et al., 2021).

Table 1.

Environmental-related JOB descriptions and required education at the zone level of the municipality, Tigray regional state (governmental career structure of the municipality, 2018).

Sector	Job Vacant	Job Description and Responsibility	Required Education	Position
Municipality	Case Team SWM	According to the office, plan prepare, follow up on the plan, support experts during implementation, and coach and advocate the organization, give professional training for experts, and the community, evaluate timely the activities, and take action to prepare financial and material to implement the activities.	BSc and above in Urban Environment, Urban Management, Environmental Health, Environmental Science, Management, economics in plant, and Urban infrastructure,	Case team manager
	Support and follow up SWM	Support and follow up SWM preparation, experience sharing related to sanitation, implementation of the standards, rules, and regulations and awareness creation on stockholders, providing technical assistance, capacity building on SWM and related issue	BSc and above in Environment and climate change, Urban Management, Environmental Science, Urban infrastructure, Health Science, Environmental Engineering, Sanitary Engineering, and Applied Chemistry	Environmentalist
	Follow up on landfill site	Provide training to the whole community and concerned bodies, on landfill management, compost preparation, and segregation of SW, follow up recycling activities, advantages and disadvantages of SWM, and evaluate suitable SWM material.	BSc and above in Sanitary Engineering, Environmental Engineering, Civil Engineering, Construction Management, and Urban Environment and Climate Change	Environmental Engineering
	SW Treatment Follow-up and Use for Different Purposes	Follow up the common SW segregation, recycling activities in the landfill site, transporting SW and poison-less, introducing household composting activities, and providing training on flammable SWM and ways of SWM to the whole community.	Diploma and Above in Urban Management, Urban Environmental and Climate Change, Environmental Health, Environmental Science, Chemistry, and Biology with basic computer skills and team spirit.	Environmental Technician
	Follow up on Sanitation of streets and roads	Check household prepares two SW collector materials, provide training and capacity building with the community on how to reduce SW initially, follow up SW collection, and transport,	Diploma and above in WM, Environmental Science, Environmental Health, Water supply and Sanitation, Applied Biology, Chemistry, Urban Environment and climate change	Environmental Expert
	Developmental Infrastructure	screen projects with significant impacts (Schedule I & II), that required EIA, put practicable and cost-effective mitigation measures, follow up EIA documents, and enhance proponents to prepare proactive and practicable EIA documents, and capacity building for stockholders and proponents.	BSc and above in Environmental Science, Urban Environment and CC, Biology, Chemistry, Urban Infrastructure, Environmental Engineering, Geography, Management, Sanitary Engineering	EIA Expert/Environmentalist

Key: CC: Climate Change; SWM: Solid Waste Management; SW: Solid Waste; WM: Waste Management.

Sources [40]:

Table 2.

Environmental-related JOB descriptions and required education at the District level of Tigray Regional State (Governmental career structure of the different sectors, 2018).

Sector	Job Description and Responsibility	Required Education	Position
Natural Resources Core-process/NARM	Rangeland, and Watershed Management, identifications of land degradation, recommendation for rehabilitation methods, biodiversity conservation management, and Capacity building for stockholders	BSc and above in Environmental Science, Agro-ecology, Development and Environmental Management Study, Forestry	Environmentalist
Irrigation Case team	Environmental impact Analysis of Irrigation projects, and develop mitigation measures, giving training	BSc and above in Environmental Science, Applied Biology, Applied Chemistry, Environmental Engineering and Science, forest Science, Sociology,	Environmentalist
Environmental Protection, Land Use, and Administration Office	Ecosystem, and Biodiversity management, regulates environmental protection activities, and capacity building and giving training to stockholders and the community.	BSc and above in Environmental Protection, Environmental Science, Soil and Water Conservation, Applied Geography, Plant Science, Environmental Study, Environment and Climate Change, and Related Disciplines	Environmental Protection core-process coordinator and Ecosystem Expert
	Data Collection that strengthens the awareness of environmental management, enhancing environmental awareness of the whole community, preparing and distributing environmental training materials, developing plans, and giving formal and informal EE for all concerned citizens, and communities.	BSc and above in Environmental Science, Chemistry, Biology, Geography, NARM, Environmental Health, environmental management, Environmental economics, and related disciples	Environmental education expert
	Conduct studies on environmental pollutants, analyze levels of pollution and mitigation methods, monitor rural and urban waste, and work on regulation, capacity building, and enhancing environmental awareness and knowledge.	BSc and above in Environmental Management, Environmental Chemistry, toxicology, Sanitary engineering, Environmental Science, Biology, Geography, NARM, Environmental Health and related	Pollution control expert
Municipality	Follow up the SW collection, segregation, reusing, and recycling activities in the landfill site, transporting SW and poison-less, providing training on flammable SWM, and enhancing environmental awareness, and knowledge	Diploma and above in Sanitary Engineering, Environmental Engineering, Environmental Science, Environmental Health, Water supply and Sanitation, and Related Disciplines	Environmentalist and Environmental Technician (two experts)
Road and Transport Office	Screen projects that have significant impacts (Schedule I & II), that require EIA, put practicable and cost-effective mitigation measures, and enhance proponents to prepare proactive and EIA documents, and follow up it, as well as giving training and capacity building on Environmental protection, and Environmental Impact Assessments (EIA).	BSc and above in Environmentalist, Geography and Environmental Study, Environmental Science, Regional Planning, and Related	EIA Expert/Environmentalist
Water, Mining, and Energy Office		BSc and above in Applied Biology, Environmental Management, Environmental Health, Environmental Science, Geography and Related	EIA Expert/Environmentalist

Sources [41]:

4. Result and discussion

4.1. Ethiopian environmental education and its historical basis

In the 1960s, environmental movements, policies, and programs were created globally as recognition of the detrimental effects of human activities on the environment and the environment's effects on people increased [42,43]. This led to the emergence of EE as an educational facet of the environmental movement in the 1960s. Environmental degradation, resource depletion, the effects of global population expansion, and air and water pollution were all major causes of concern [43,44]. Consequently, a National Policy for Environmental Protection (NEPA) was created in 1969 to establish a national policy to stop or minimize environmental harm and create a sustainable relationship between people and their surroundings [45].

Furthermore, the 1972 United Nations Conference on the Human Environment, held in Stockholm, Sweden, established principle 19, which unequivocally affirms that providing EE for children and adults is crucial for preserving and enhancing environmental sustainability [43]. Moreover, EE was taken as a provision for addressing environmental problems and related issues worldwide [43,44]. Five years later, in 1977, the multinational EE Conference was held in Tbilisi, Republic of Georgia, as reported in collaboration with the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) and the United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) [46]. Because of this, environmental educators are still using the highly significant EE's aims, objectives, and guiding concepts that were produced at the conference [46,47].

In a similar vein, in 1992, the UN convened a conference on environment and development in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, after twenty years. Shifting the focus of education towards sustainable development, raising public awareness, and providing training (capacity building) are the main topics of Agenda 21's Chapter 36. The primary EE principles discussed at this conference are: (1) the individual's right to information access. (2) The entitlement to increased public knowledge; and (3) Efficient access to legal and administrative remedies concerning environmental matters [31]. Ten years after the Rio de Janeiro conference, during the World Summit for Sustainable Development that was held in Johannesburg, South Africa, in 2002, the Education for Sustainable Development International Implementation Scheme (UNDESD-IIS) was established. It was highly focused on the value of EE in favor of sustainable development as well as the standard of basic education [48].

As a result of the Rio de Janeiro conference/World Summit, numerous developed and developing nations have been attempting to incorporate EE as a stand-alone subject or as part of a cross-curricula approach that integrates it with other courses at various academic levels as well as incorporated into their laws, policies, and international accords imposed at various conferences [49].

4.2. Historical foundations of EE in Ethiopia

The Ethiopian EE Project was initiated in 1985 with funding from the Swedish International Development Authority (SIDA) and a cooperative agreement between the Ministries of Agriculture (MOA) and Education (MOE). The objective was to raise people's awareness of and education about local environmental protection. Additionally, it was thanks to this program that formal EE was introduced into a few Ethiopian teacher training schools [50]. Legally speaking, because Ethiopia participated in conferences held in Rio de Janeiro in 1992, environmental rights, as well as issues, were included in articles 43, 44, and 92 of Ethiopia's supreme laws and constitutions [51]. Because of this, Ethiopia's environmental policy (EPA), namely Section 4.10, explicitly includes EE and awareness [52].

Ethiopia's environmental policies (EEP) addresses the issue with environmental education, on the sectorial policy section, sub-section 4.10 on the title Environmental Education and Awareness in the following ways: (1) by promoting the trans disciplinary nature of EE education and integrating incorporating it into university, college, and school curricula rather than treating it as an extra or distinct topic; (2) In order to develop environmental awareness programs, it is imperative that local environmental problems be addressed in a specific way; (3) Mass media have to be motivated to contribute to the awareness raising regarding environmental issues through obtaining access to communications and physical issues; (4), improve the current state of training and higher education establishments by providing programs and classes on environmental challenges for a range of academic fields additionally to specialized training in environmental professions; (5) Create and assist local environmental societies, clubs, and campaigns that were utilized disseminate information via media encourage best experiences, and raise public awareness of environmental issues; (6), start the process of NGOs, local communities, and religious leaders actively participating in environmental conservation and raising environmental awareness, and assist them in doing so [52].

Apart from promoting the incorporation of multidisciplinary environmental education into policy curriculum, the EPA developed a structure as a department at the regional level, a unit at the district level, and other cross-sectional sectors both at regional and district levels for inspection and monitoring of environmental-linked actions across many office levels and layers. Moreover, informal environmental education was emerging at the levels of cities, institutions, and schools, particularly in the form of environment clubs [53].

The primary objectives of Ethiopian education are outlined in the Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia's Education and Training Policy of 1994, which is still in effect today. These goals include creating citizens who are capable of actively protecting Ethiopia's natural resources, historical legacies, and environment. Upbringing of responsible people and prudent resource management [54,55].

Apart from the formal education provided in schools, non-formal education offered by the EPA/Now Environment, Forest, and Climate Change Commission (EFCCC) is organized interims of some resources, capacity building, legislation and guidelines improvement, etc. from the highest federal level up to the lower district level [53]. Both formal and non-formal EE structures and their collaboration are summarized in the following Fig. 2: Formal and Non-formal EE in Ethiopia.

Fig. 2.

Formal and non-formal EE in Ethiopia.

4.3. Key

AAEPA: Addis Ababa Environmental Protection Authority; EE: Environmental Education EPA: Environmental Protection Authority; EFCCC: Environment, Forest and Climate Change Commission; EFCCRF: Environment, Forest, and Climate Change Research at Federal; EFCCRR: Environment, Forest, and Climate Change Research at Regional; MoE: Ministry of Education; MoSHE: Ministry of Science and Higher Education PS: Primary School; RM: Regional Municipality; REPA: Regional Environmental Protection Authority; TVET: Technical and Vocational Education Training; SS: Secondary School; TS: Tertiary School; CS: Comprehensive School.

Sources: Author Summarized from FDRE [36], Education and Training Policy; ESDP, I. (2002). Education Sector Development Program IV; and EFCCC. (2019). Manual for School Environmental Clubs.

4.4. Ethiopian formal environmental education

4.4.1. Ethiopia's policies on education and environmental education

In Ethiopia, environmental rights and issues were ratified legally in the Ethiopian constitution in 1995 [51]. To implement environmental rights in the constitution, Ethiopia formulated its environmental policy in 1997, with clear incorporation of EE and awareness creation [52]. In addition, Ethiopia's Education and Training Policy tries to include the formal EE in its goals and inspire students to adopt behaviors, conserve resources wisely and sustainably, safeguard the environment, form a global and national perspective on environmental issues, and improve their overall development [56]. Non-formal environmental education is also supported by the EPA environmental education guidelines [[52], [53], [54],57].

Understanding that EE requires integration of all environmental components and student capacity through (1) environmental education and (2) instruction in or via the surroundings [58]. A curriculum that is inclusive of the environment is appropriate and welcome within the framework of the school. In practice, two main approaches are used: (1) cross-curricular approaches, wherein environmental issues are integrated into various disciplines of the school curriculum as topics or units. (2) independent discipline or topic approaches, which involve teaching EE as a stand-alone course in lower grades or as an independent subject in higher education [42].

The Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia's 1994 education policy and the Education Sector Development Programme V (ESDP V) have a clear educational goal, target, and approach. The policy's main objectives for EE are as follows: (1) to enhance, develop, safeguard, and conserve our environment to promote holistic development by integrating science and technology into society; (2) to raise all citizens to be environmentally conscious, creative, and productive adults who actively participate in the environmentally friendly utilization of environmental resources and its sustainable growth [54]. Similarly, education policy has general objectives related to EE: (1) Raise all citizens to the level of active participation, prudent use of resources, and encouragement of aesthetics and a positive attitude toward the use of technology and science to environmental problem-solving in society; (2) Develop the inhabitants' potential in terms of minds, creativity, productivity, and appreciation through the integration of education with environmental and societal requirements. By connecting education to the environment, societal demands, and issues, the goal of environmental education is to attempt the integration of the three elements: education for the environment, education in the environment, and education about the environment [54,55,59].

4.4.2. Environmental education in primary schools in Ethiopia

EE was incorporated into the curriculum as a cross-curriculum and separate subject approach, whereby environmental issues are presented as units or topics in several courses. In the lower primary (1–4) school, environmental science is taught as a separate subject or independent subject [54,59]. Almost all the contents focused on EE issues, and relative to other subjects within lower and upper primary schools, it includes a sufficient amount of environmental topics and issues, such as pollution, deforestation, climate change, plants and their importance, wild animals, environmental resources, etc. [54]. In addition, the environment was integrated as a cross-curriculum approach in the upper primary school (5–8), either as a topic or chapter in a limited number of natural and social disciplines or subjects, and the coverage of EE contents (Fig. 3) about the subject's overall content is inadequate [54,60,61].

Fig. 3.

Author summarized from Abera Husen (2018); an overview of the topics and content offered in elementary school subjects in EE especially 1–4 Grade level as Drawn from the Textbook Review by the author and Abera Husen.

An analysis of the incorporation of EE into all subjects at four specifically chosen primary schools in Ethiopia revealed that EE is taught independently/in separate subjects in lower-grade primary schools (1–4), environmental science (Fig. 3) and in an integrated manner in upper-grade primary schools (5–8). The data for the study came from the review of sixteen textbooks, interviews with twenty-two primary school teachers, and observation of five lessons [54,61]. The subject's nature and grade level determine how environmental topics and issues are integrated [54,59,61]. These studies found that while EE components are not incorporated into some subjects, specifically English, other languages, physics, or mathematics, they are comparatively combined with science subjects like geography (social studies), biology, and integrated science [61].

EE research on the second cycle of the Oromia regional state's primary school curriculum (grades 5–8) revealed that environmental issues like deforestation, land degradation, population growth, and soil erosion, as well as environmental elements like plants, land, animals, air, and human interactions with the environment, were included in the science textbooks for grades five and six. They differ in substance among subjects and grade levels, nevertheless. While there were specific topics covered in grade five and six natural science textbooks, there was no specific topic in the social studies textbooks that addressed environmental issues [62].

However, integrating environmental issues and EE components into core school subjects is insufficient on its own; a holistic EE model teaching in, about, and for the environment is required [24,61]. The fundamental reasons for the variations in the degree and emphasis of EE components across primary school topics are the subject matter, curriculum developers' level of awareness, and their expertise with EE [54,59,61].

4.4.3. EE in secondary schools in Ethiopia

Though the environmental challenges and content were ideally integrated into the curriculum of the fields of natural and social sciences in secondary schools, practically the contents are not sufficient [54,59]. Using curriculum assessment and data collection from twenty senior secondary schools in grades 9, 10, 11, and 12, a study on the status of EE in secondary education by Semegne Hailu [63] revealed that the environmental issue and its contents were inadequately or negligibly integrated with all social and natural subjects in secondary education. Nonetheless, certain environmental knowledge is included in geography and biology courses as a stand-alone unit [63]. A similar study on the incorporation of EE in secondary school education subjects revealed that the EE's objectives were not sufficiently addressed in secondary school curricula and that EE contents were only included in a single unit in both biology and geography subjects in grades 9 and 10 [64]. So, the inclusion of EE in the curriculum guidelines was hardly to offer citizens the required information, skills, attitude, participation, perspective, engagement, and environmental problem-solving abilities [61,62].

Another case study on EE about, in, and for the environment in two Ethiopian secondary schools revealed that few secondary school subjects addressed environmental content and issues and that there was little discussion of EE practices. As a result, students learned little about, in, and for the local environment [6]. And schools do not teach contextualized, locally relevant environmental learning or skills that apply to the local environment [6,55].

Additional research identifying how secondary school students disseminate EE in the community also revealed that almost all subjects had inadequate EE contents that contained fieldwork and students visited local environments and practices, except students taught limited content of EE only in the classroom [65]. Moreover, the teaching methodologies proposed in the curricula materials were found to lack outdoor and problem-solving methods, and the methodologies were not open enough to fill gaps to make the teaching and learning indigenous [54,66].

It was demonstrated by a case study on teachers' attitudes towards EE in the classroom and their roles in a local community and secondary school that the teachers' perspectives about EE in the classroom were positive [67]. However, their perspectives on the practical process of teaching and learning, in addition to their roles in the community and schools, were not encouraging or inspiring [67,68].

4.4.4. Environmental education in higher education in Ethiopia

Environmental Science has been offered at 15 Ethiopian universities offering bachelor's degrees, 13 offering master's degrees, and 5 offering Ph.D. programs. The undergraduate and postgraduate programs in environmental science are offered by departments at several Ethiopian universities, including the universities of Addis Ababa, Arba-Minch, Adigrat, Meda-Wulabu, Haremaya, Hawasa, Kotebe, Jimma, Oda Bultum, Wollega, Wolayta Sedo, etc. These programs offer a comprehensive understanding of environmental-related concerns and courses within the Environmental Science department. Additionally, EE connects with the departments of environmental engineering, climate and society, natural resource management, gender and environment, and geography and environmental studies [56,69]. Similar to this, a case study by Fisseha [70]; findings about the condition of the environmental programs at Jimma and Addis Abeba Universities showed that the strategic plan document of the university addressed sustainable development issues, EE-related curriculum disciplines were developed for undergraduate and postgraduate students using multidisciplinary teaching methodologies and students, were knowledgeable about the range of courses and fields of study offered in both universities of programs and expertise. But still, these universities were found to lack environmental policies and a responsible coordination directorate for issues like gender and HIV/AIDS [70]. Geography and history courses failed to integrate EE, which lacked typical topics or EE teaching methods included in course syllabi, according to a study by Melaku [71] on the incorporation of EE into social studies programs chosen for teacher training education. Consequently, more than 50 % of the trainees lacked environmental knowledge and proficiency in addressing environmental issues [71]. Furthermore, a case study conducted to assess students' environmental literacy through environmental knowledge, attitude, and practice at Bahir Dar University revealed low levels of environmental literacy in practical education and a high correlation between knowledge, attitude, and practice [72].

4.5. Non-formal/informal EE in Ethiopia

Project-based education in informal learning is employed as an approach to supporting community empowerment programs aimed at addressing environmental issues. The Ethiopian organization ORDA, which stands for Organization for Rehabilitation and Development in Amhara, contributed to non-formal education by way of project-based education, which was employed as a practice to capacitate people in managing watersheds and going green with the knowledge and abilities they had gained to enhance the quality of the environment and forest productivity. Stakeholder Participation Theory, Adult Learning Principles and Communication, Practical Knowledge Management, Theory of Change, and Stakeholder Participation Theory are four non-formal environmental tactics that ORDA has employed [73].

It is rare to find research on non-formal or informal EE in Ethiopia; however, the federal Environment, Forest, and Climate Change Commission (EFCCC) and each regional Environmental Protection, Land Use, and Administration Agency (EPLUAA) have informal or non-formal EE departments as well as EE specialists at district (woreda) levels [66,74]. Furthermore, other cross-sectoral sectors (such as municipalities, mining and energy, agricultural and rural development, and so on) at every level (federal, regions, zones/cities, districts/towns, and a small village (locally known as Kebeles)) have environmental related experts in environmental protection sectors and municipalities at all levels (as indicated below in Table 1, Table 2). Additionally, each professional expert has a specific role to play in environmental protection and in enhancing community and societal awareness and attitudes toward sustainable development and environmental education through informal education, training, and capacity building. In practice, however, the governmental/civil service structure have been found to be dispersed and ineffective in putting environmental protection objectives into practice [66], and according Zikargae, Woldearegay [73], in providing environmental education, attaining sustainable development, and motivating workers and important stakeholders Considering the limited resources available and the absence of government concern; The primary obstacles have been found to be inadequate Environmental learning, follow up, monitoring and assessment of the implementation of environmental protection related activities, which is Monitoring and evaluation are not included in the non-formal/informal education's learning, participative, and legitimacy techniques of EE, and not considered as inputs for continuous both education and management advancement, and restrictions on community involvement and active participation in any environmental related activities, and decision making; exercising the environmental right of the community that ratified on Article 44 of the constitution of the country [51], and deeply ingrained inadequate environmental awareness and knowledge management syndrome [73].

In addition to the environmental-related jobs of the government in different sectors at different administrative levels, there are several environmental clubs in every elementary school, secondary school, university, and Kebeles administration. The Environmental Club intends to increase awareness of environmental resources, climate change, variability, and related concerns, among students, teachers, experts, and local communities. The Club also aims to reduce the environmental impacts that each of us has on our own lives, the communities we live in around us, and the world at large. To improve environmental sound skills and attitudes, as well as accountable citizens prepared to put in significant effort at the individual and societal levels to ensure sustainable and environmentally friendly development, environmental clubs seek to assist students and individuals in becoming environmentally conscious, sensitive, and involved members of their local and school communities [57].

Those environmental clubs and participation programs are to solve local environmental issues, increase local and scientific knowledge about the environment, and educate others about the environment (Fig. 4). Acquiring knowledge of green technology enhances an outlook for an eco-friendly future [32,57]. A case study has been conducted to examine the function of the environmental protection club in developing students' environmental sensitivity and awareness at Debre Tabor University in Ethiopia. According to Meseret [75], the school's environmental clubs have been engaged in a variety of environmental protection initiatives, such as the preparation of compost, plantations, recycling and management of garbage, soil conservation, the creation of organic fertilizer, and campus beautification [54,75]. However, practically, the club's biggest obstacles to success were students' low financial resources, lack of willingness to participate, and awareness issues. With limited efforts on environmental protection and meeting its objectives [75,76], environmental-related activities in schools and communities are weak [63,66,75,77]. Also, relative to the environmental clubs at the Kebeles level, the school environmental clubs are practicing different environmental protection activities (Fig. 4: The author summarized both formal and informal EE structures and practices in Ethiopia). This is because the main obstacles to the success of the clubs and other informal/non-formal EE were students' lack of practical skills, lack of resources (such as water, greenery, dustbins, etc.), lack of motivation to actively participate, and lack of funding [66,75,77]. Furthermore, teachers' attitudes towards EE and their roles in organizing environmental clubs that act as role models for the school and nearby communities are low [68,76]. In particular, despite their name, the environmental clubs that were present at the kebele level played no real role in environmental protection; this may have been because they lacked training, funding, motivation, leadership, and follow-up [66,73,75].

Fig. 4.

The author summarized both formal and informal EE structures and practices in Ethiopia.

Additionally, the media is a non-formal/informal means of EE and has a significant role in raising environmental consciousness, knowledge, experiences, attitudes, etc. [78,79]. But the media makes a minimal contribution to raising environmental information in Ethiopia [[79], [80], [81]]. This could be the result of limited EE in printed media, restricted access by the public to radio and television programming, inadequate content in the media [79], a lack of cooperation among organizations that care about the environment, weak communication infrastructure, or a lack of expertise in environmental journalism [79,81].

5. Conclusion and recommendation

Formal as well as informal EEs are important to achieving sustainability of development through enhancing awareness, knowledge, skill, attitude, and active participation in environmental problem-solving at the local and national levels of the young generation and the whole society, regardless of age class.

The formal EE in the primary school uses two approaches. The delivery approach, which is the EE, is given as a stand-alone environmental science subject in a lower grade (1–4) of the primary school with different contents (Fig. 3). On the other hand, EE is taught as a cross-curricula approach in the second cycle of primary school (grades five up to eight), which means that some environmental concerns are integrated into a few subjects (biology, geography, and integrated science) only, either as topics or chapters; however, relative to the whole contents of the subjects, the environmental contents, and issues are not covered in sufficient depth since they are integrated either as chapters, topics, or sub-topics. Similarly, in secondary schools, EE is integrated into all social and natural subjects; it also hard to acquire the objective of EE in the curriculum and is not covered in sufficient depth. Relatively, in geography and biology subjects, there is little environmental information. Teachers have a low role in changing and enhancing the school and local community. Out of elementary and secondary schools, in higher education, there is a rise in EE and environmental concerns in different environmental-related disciplines and specializations of undergraduate and post-graduate programs. However, practical and problem-based EE is low and not covered in sufficient depth. Also, the awareness and attitudes of higher education students and the community are low and given less attention by concerned bodies in the universities.

The government's attempts to incorporate EE into the educational curriculum were therefore hindered, in addition to the other factors: a lack of educational resources required to support these endeavors as well as inadequate teacher training promoting this educational goal [63,70,75,76,79].

Even though it is hard to get a study on non-formal or informal EE in Ethiopia, NGO initiatives provides support to make up for the government's lack of focus on environmental issues and assist community members in their efforts to address environmental challenges. According to the governmental structure, there is an EE structure from the federal (Environment, Forest, and Climate Change Commission/EFCCC) up to the district (Environmental Protection, Land Use, and Administration Office/EPLUAO); to enhance awareness, attitude, knowledge, and the active participation of the community and society as a whole in environment protection.

Other cross-sectional sectors have environmental-related structures and environmental experts at all levels. However, there was fragmented, not covered in sufficient depth, and ineffective implementation of EE as a result of less governmental concern and interim financial, material, and technical limitations.

Moreover, different environmental clubs (at each primary and secondary school, some higher education, and Kebeles administrative) exist. Relative to the environmental clubs at the Kebeles level, the school environmental clubs are practicing and working on different environmental protection activities, including waste management practices, plantations, prepared compost, and innovation of green technology, soil conservation, and campus landscaping, and disseminating environmental issues. But, still, there is a gap and limited efforts due to issues with students' awareness, their lack of desire to engage, their financial situation, shortages and coordination problems. Therefore, as EE is a multidisciplinary and interdisciplinary approach, it is too important for all citizens to provide, through the formal EE approach (schooling students) and the informal approach (out of schooling), education as general education for all civil servants, policymakers, decision-makers, the public, and society as a whole without any consideration.

Finally, the educational policy and curriculum of Ethiopia should be updated in line with UNESCO. In 2030, adequate environmental content should be given either as an independent subject in the curriculum across all grade levels or as infused and integrated rich content in every subject across all grade levels with practical aspects and problem-based education. Also, emphasizing informal and non-formal EE with sufficient concern and motivation, expanding best practices, and further detailed studies on inclusive EE need to be undertaken.

Declaration of ethics

The author claimed that no application for clearance from an ethical committee was made for the study. There is no sensitive issue in the study that could harm an individual or a community. Additionally, no particular person or group benefits from the study. The author added that they had truthfully and actively involved him in this study and attempted to present the findings in an impartial for. Furthermore, this research contains no sensitive material that could violate someone's privacy.

Data availability and sharing declaration

The author encourages open dissemination of the research data and open publicity for the research article as well as the sharing of such data. In light of this, all of the data is accessible when the appropriate author requests it.

CRediT authorship contribution statement

Tsegay Kahsay Gebrekidan: Writing – review & editing, Writing – original draft, Visualization, Methodology, Investigation, Formal analysis, Data curation, Conceptualization.

Declaration of competing interest

The author declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.