Corrigendum: Home alone together: Differential links between momentary contexts and real-time loneliness among older adults from Chicago during versus before the COVID-19 pandemic

Abstract

Studies show that older adults were lonelier during versus before the COVID-19 pandemic. This may be due in part to guidelines particularly recommending that older adults stay at home, given their elevated risk of COVID-19 complications. However, little is known about the extent to which this population experienced greater intensity in momentary loneliness during versus before the pandemic, and how this relates to their real-time contexts. Here, we build upon recent findings from the Chicago Health and Activity Space in Real-Time (CHART) study that revealed associations between momentary contexts and loneliness among older adults. We analyze ecological momentary assessments (EMAs) from both pre- and during COVID-19 among a subsample of CHART respondents (N = 110 older adults age 65–88 in 2020). Pre-pandemic data were collected across three waves from April 2018–October 2019, and pandemic data were collected across three additional waves from June–September 2020. Participants responded to smartphone “pings” (five per day for 7 days per wave; N = 5,506 and N = 7,824 before and during the pandemic, respectively) by reporting their momentary loneliness and context (e.g., home). Findings from multi-level regression models suggest that respondents were lonelier in mid-2020 than in years prior, as well as when at home and alone; they were also more likely to be at home during the pandemic. However, the loneliness-inducing effects of being at home (vs. outside the home) and alone (vs. with others) were weaker during versus before COVID-19. Results provide important nuance to broader trends in loneliness among older adults during the pandemic. Specifically, older adults may have adopted new technologies to support social connectedness. It is also possible that, during a time in which social and physical distancing characterized public health guidelines, these contexts grew less isolating as they became a shared experience, or that publicly shared spaces provided fewer opportunities for social engagement.

In the original article, there was a coding error related to the coding of our main momentary social context measure: “who they are with”. Specifically, we incorrectly coded all Spanish-speaking respondents’ EMA survey data as 0 (“alone”); this concerned a small subset of the data, 92 EMAs.

Corrections have been made to all paragraphs in the following sub-sections: Abstract, Analytic Sample, Descriptive Statistics, Differential Exposure to Contexts, The COVID-19 Pandemic (Research Question 1), Pre-versus During the Pandemic (Research Question 2), The COVID-19 Pandemic as a Modifier of Contextual Effects (Research Question 3), Table 1, Table 2, Table 3, Table 4, Fig, 1, Tables S1-S4.

Table 1.

Descriptive statistics for loneliness and key measures included in analyses (N = 110; 13,330 EMAs), pre- and during the pandemic.

Respondent-level (N=110)	Pre-Pandemic		During Pandemic		95% CI/chi-square statistic
	Mean/%	SD	Mean/%	SD
Gender
Man	43
Woman	57
Race and ethnicity
Non-Hispanic white	44
Non-Hispanic Black	44
Non-Black Hispanic	13
Education
Less than High School	16
High School	16
Some college	27
College +	40
Age	72.35	5.54
Health status (baseline)					2.11
Excellent/very good	44		38
Good	41		40
Fair/poor	15		22
Marital Status (baseline)					0.13
Married/living with partner	35		36
Separated/divorced	16		16
Widowed	33		34
Never married	16		14
Employment status (baseline)					[-0.14, 0.08]
Employed, any	22		23
Not employed	78		77

EMA-level (N=13,330)	Pre-Pandemic (N = 5,506)		During Pandemic (N = 7,824)		95% CI
	Mean/%	SD	Mean/%	SD
Loneliness (1–4)	1.19	0.50	1.24	0.57	[-0.06, −0.02]
Location					[-0.09, −0.07]
Home	70		79
Not at home	30		21
Who with					[-0.02, 0.01]
Alone	51		51
Not alone	49		49

Note: SD = standard deviation. Measures of loneliness are coded so that higher values represent greater loneliness. Confidence intervals (CIs) are from t-tests of significance.

Table 2.

Multilevel linear regression models reporting coefficients and standard errors for loneliness regressed on context and the pandemic.

	Model 1		Model 2		Model 3
	β (SE)	95% CI	β (SE)	95% CI	β (SE)	95% CI
EMA-level
During pandemic (ref: pre-pandemic)	0.03 (0.01)	[0.02,0.04]
Location (ref: not at home)
At home			0.06 (0.01)	[0.04,0.07]
Who with (ref: not alone)
Alone					0.08 (0.01)	[0.07,0.10]
Health status (ref: excellent/very good)
Good	−0.01 (0.01)	[-0.04,0.01]	−0.01 (0.01)	[-0.04,0.01]	−0.02 (0.01)	[-0.04,0.01]
Fair/poor	−0.07 (0.02)	[-0.10,-0.03]	−0.07 (0.02)	[-0.10,-0.03]	−0.07 (0.02)	[-0.10,-0.03]
Marital status (ref: married/partnered)
Separated/divorced	0.10 (0.03)	[0.04,0.16]	0.09 (0.03)	[0.03,0.15]	0.07 (0.03)	[0.00,0.13]
Widowed	0.18 (0.03)	[0.12,0.24]	0.17 (0.03)	[0.11,0.23]	0.15 (0.03)	[0.09,0.21]
Never married	0.13 (0.04)	[0.06,0.20]	0.11 (0.04)	[0.04,0.18]	0.10 (0.04)	[0.03,0.17]
Employment status
Employed (any)	0.01 (0.01)	[-0.02,0.03]	0.01 (0.01)	[-0.02,0.03]	0.01 (0.01)	[-0.01,0.03]
Respondent-level
Gender
Female	−0.07 (0.05)	[-0.17,0.04]	−0.07 (0.05)	[-0.17,0.04]	−0.06 (0.05)	[-0.16,0.05]
Race and ethnicity (ref: Non-Hispanic White)
Non-Hispanic Black	−0.03 (0.06)	[-0.15,0.10]	−0.02 (0.06)	[-0.15,0.10]	−0.02 (0.06)	[-0.14,0.11]
Non-Black Hispanic	−0.04 (0.09)	[-0.21,0.13]	−0.04 (0.09)	[-0.21,0.13]	−0.03 (0.09)	[-0.22,0.14]
Education (ref: some High School)
High school	−0.04 (0.09)	[-0.21,0.14]	−0.03 (0.09)	[-0.21,0.14]	−0.04 (0.09)	[-0.22,0.13]
Some college	0.03 (0.08)	[-0.12,0.19]	0.04 (0.08)	[-0.12,0.20]	0.02 (0.08)	[-0.14,0.18]
College +	−0.04 (0.09)	[-0.21,0.13]	−0.04 (0.09)	[-0.21,0.13]	−0.05 (0.09)	[-0.22,0.12]
Age at baseline	0.00 (0.00)	[-0.01,0.01]	0.00 (0.00)	[-0.01,0.01]	0.00 (0.00)	[-0.01,0.01]
Previous loneliness report	0.32 (0.01)	[0.31,0.34]	0.32 (0.01)	[0.31,0.34]	0.32 (0.01)	[0.31,0.34]
Constant	0.71 (0.35)	[0.03,1.40]	0.72 (0.35)	[0.02,1.41]	0.71 (0.36)	[0.02,1.41]
Variance components
EMA-level variance	0.13		0.13		0.13
Respondent-level variance	0.06		0.07		0.07
Additional information
Log likelihood	−5596.3		−5578.5		−5550.1
R2	0.38		0.39		0.39
Number of EMA observations	13330		13330		13330
Number of respondents	110		110		110

Note: Standard errors are presented below estimates, with 95% confidence intervals (CIs) to the right. Measures of loneliness are coded so that higher values represent greater loneliness.

Table 3.

Multilevel logistic regression models reporting log-odds and standard errors for physical and social context exposures regressed on the pandemic.

	Home		Alone
	β (SE)	95% CI	β (SE)	95% CI
EMA-level
During pandemic (ref: pre-pandemic)	0.41 (0.05)	[0.32,0.50]	0.04 (0.04)	[-0.05,0.12]
Health status (ref: excellent/very good)
Good	0.11 (0.08)	[-0.04,0.26]	0.36 (0.08)	[0.19,0.52]
Fair/poor	0.31 (0.11)	[0.09,0.53]	0.21 (0.11)	[-0.00,0.43]
Marital status (ref: married/partnered)
Separated/divorced	−0.20 (0.19)	[-0.57,0.17]	0.90 (0.20)	[0.50,1.29]
Widowed	−0.22 (0.19)	[-0.59,0.15]	0.82 (0.20)	[0.43,1.20]
Never married	−0.09 (0.21)	[-0.51,0.33]	0.38 (0.23)	[-0.06,0.82]
Employment status
Employed (any)	0.16 (0.07)	[0.01,0.30]	−0.12 (0.07)	[-0.27,0.03]
Respondent-level
Gender
Female	0.33 (0.23)	[-0.12,0.77]	0.54 (0.32)	[-1.18,0.09]
Race and ethnicity (ref: Non-Hispanic White)
Non-Hispanic Black	0.35 (0.27)	[-0.19,0.88]	1.09 (0.53)	[-2.12,0.06]
Non-Black Hispanic	−0.10 (0.37)	[-0.83,0.62]	0.82 (0.61)	[-0.38,2.01]
Education (ref: some High School)
High school	−0.32 (0.38)	[-1.07,0.43]	0.71 (0.54)	[-0.34,1.76]
Some college	−0.51 (0.35)	[-1.19,0.18]	1.29 (0.49)	[0.13,0.05]
College +	−0.44 (0.38)	[-1.18,0.31]	0.66 (0.53)	[-9.38,1.70]
Age at baseline	0.05 (0.02)	[0.01,0.09]	0.01 (0.03)	[-0.05,0.06]
Constant	−2.40 (1.51)	[-5.37,0.57]	−1.23 (2.14)	[-5.43,2.96]
Variance components
Respondent-level variance	1.07		2.32
Additional information
Log likelihood	−6624.9		−7055.9
R2	0.14		0.32
Number of EMA observations	13330		13330
Number of respondents	110		110

Note: Standard errors are presented below estimates, with 95% confidence intervals (CIs) to the right.

Table 4.

Multilevel linear regression models reporting coefficients and standard errors for loneliness regressed on the interaction between context and the pandemic.

	Home		Alone
	β (SE)	95% CI	β (SE)	95% CI
EMA-level
During pandemic (ref: pre-pandemic)	0.09 (0.01)	[0.06,0.11]	0.04 (0.01)	[0.03,0.06]
Location (ref: not at home)
At home	0.10 (0.01)	[0.08,0.12]
Who with (ref: not alone)
Alone			0.10 0.01	[0.08,0.12]
During pandemic x at home	−0.08 (0.02)	[-0.11,-0.05]
During pandemic x alone			−0.03 0.01	[-0.06,-0.01]
Health status (ref: excellent/very good)
Good	−0.02 (0.01)	[-0.04,0.01]	−0.02 0.01	[-0.04,0.01]
Fair/poor	−0.07 (0.02)	[-0.10,-0.04]	−0.07 0.02	[-0.11,-0.04]
Marital status (ref: married/partnered)
Separated/divorced	0.11 (0.03)	[0.05,0.17]	0.09 0.03	[0.02,0.15]
Widowed	0.20 (0.03)	[0.13,0.26]	0.17 0.03	[0.10,0.23]
Never married	0.13 (0.04)	[0.06,0.21]	0.12 (0.04)	[0.05,0.19]
Employment status
Employed (any)	0.00 (0.01)	[-0.02,0.02]	0.01 0.01	[-0.01,0.03]
Respondent-level
Gender
Female	−0.07 (0.05)	[-0.18,0.03]	−0.06 0.05	[-0.17,0.05]
Race and ethnicity (ref: Non-Hispanic White)
Non-Hispanic Black	−0.03 (0.06)	[-0.16,0.10]	−0.02 0.06	[-0.15,0.10]
Non-Black Hispanic	−0.04 (0.09)	[-0.21,0.13]	−0.03 0.09	[-0.20,0.14]
Education (ref: some High School)
High school	−0.03 (0.09)	[-0.20,0.14]	−0.03 0.09	[-0.22,0.13]
Some college	0.04 (0.08)	[-0.12,0.20]	0.02 0.08	[-0.14,0.18]
College +	−0.03 (0.09)	[-0.20,0.14]	−0.05 0.09	[-0.22,0.13]
Age at baseline	0.00 (0.00)	[-0.01,0.01]	0.00 0.00	[-0.01,0.01]
Previous loneliness report	0.32 (0.01)	[0.30,0.33]	0.32 0.01	[0.30,0.34]
Constant	0.66 (0.36)	[0.04,1.35]	0.69 0.36	[0.01,1.38]
Variance components
EMA-level variance	0.13		0.13
Respondent-level variance	0.07		0.07
Additional information
Log likelihood	−5556.8		−5538.2
R2	0.38		0.38
Number of EMA observations	13330		13330
Number of respondents	110		110

Note: Standard errors are presented below estimates, with 95% confidence intervals (CIs) to the right. Measures of loneliness are coded so that higher values represent greater loneliness.

Fig. 1.

Average marginal effects of social and physical context on momentary reports of loneliness, pre- and during the pandemic (reference: being home and alone).

The authors apologize for these errors and state that they do not change the scientific conclusions of the article in any way.

The corrected paragraphs are included below:

Analytic sample

Following prior studies, we excluded from analysis EMAs that were started more than 30 minutes after ping receipt or that took more than 30 minutes to complete. Additional analytic decisions unique to this dataset are summarized in Supplementary materials and described in more detail in a recent study using these data (Compernolle et al., 2021). The resulting analytic sample comprised 13,330 EMAs among 110 respondents. Overall, respondents answered an average of 121 EMAs (range 6–214) across the six waves. The total response rate was about 58% valid EMAs out of all 23,100 possible EMAs. The conditional response rate for Wave 1 was 82%, 98% for Wave 2, 92% for Wave 3, 97% for Wave 4, 95% for Wave 5, and 95% for Wave 6. Likelihood of non-response was not strongly correlated with any of the loneliness or momentary context measures (r range = 0.00–0.06).

The COVID-19 pandemic (Research Question 1)

Table 2 presents results from a multilevel linear regression model of the relationship between respondents’ loneliness and the pandemic. Results show that older adults experienced greater intensity momentary loneliness during the pandemic versus before ($\beta$ = 0.03, 95% CI [0.02, 0.04]). Results in Models 2 and 3 are consistent with existing studies: relative to being outside the home and to being with others, respondents currently at home or alone reported higher levels of loneliness ($\beta$ = 0.06; 95% CI [0.04, 0.07] and $\beta$ = 0.08; 95% CI [0.07, 0.10], respectively).

Differential exposure to contexts, pre-versus during the pandemic (Research Question 2)

Table 3 presents results from multilevel logistic regression models predicting respondents’ likelihood of momentarily being at home and being alone. Respondents were more likely to be at home during versus before the pandemic ($\beta$ = 0.41; 95% CI [0.32, 0.50]), but were not significantly more or less likely to be alone ($\beta$ = 0.04; 95% CI [-0.05, 0.12]).

[Table 3 about here].

The COVID-19 pandemic as a modifier of contextual effects (Research Question 3)

Model 1 in Table 4 presents results from a multilevel linear regression model testing whether the effect of being home on loneliness varied by the pandemic; Model 2 shows results from a similar model but testing the effect of being alone. Across these models, the main effects of being home, being alone, and occurring during the pandemic are each still significantly associated with greater loneliness. However, respondents reported lower intensity momentary loneliness while at home during versus before the pandemic ($\beta$ = -0.08; 95% CI [-0.11, −0.05]). The same is true for being alone: respondents experienced lower intensity momentary loneliness when alone during the pandemic than when alone pre-pandemic ($\beta$ = -0.03; 95% CI [-0.06, −0.01]).

Table S1.

Summary of analytic sample construction

Respondent-level	N Respondents dropped
Self-reported “Other” race and ethnicity category	11
Did not complete baseline interviews	5
Did not complete at least one EMA pre and one EMA during COVID	325
EMA-level	N EMAs dropped
Took >30 minutes to complete	363
Did not begin within 30 minutes of trigger text	784
Duplicate EMA due to application error	23
Started or submitted <30 minutes of another EMA	356
Missing on key variable	622

Notes: Exclusion criteria not mutually exclusive. See Compernolle et al., 2021 for a more detailed description of analytic decisions unique to this dataset.

Table S2.

Multilevel ordered logistic regression models reporting coefficients and standard errors for loneliness regressed on context and the pandemic.

	Model 1		Model 2		Model 3
	β (SE)	95% CI	β (SE)	95% CI	β (SE)	95% CI
EMA-level
COVID-19	0.30 (0.07)	[0.17,0.43]
Location (ref: home)
At home			0.56 (0.08)	[0.41,0.71]
Who with (ref: alone)
Alone					0.86 (0.08)	[0.70,1.01]
Health status (ref: excellent/very good)
Good	−0.23 (0.11)	[-0.45,-0.01]	−0.27 (0.11)	[-0.49,-0.05]	−0.28 (0.11)	[-0.50,-0.06]
Fair/poor	−0.83 (0.18)	[-1.19,-0.47]	−0.85 (0.18)	[-1.20,-0.50]	−0.82 (0.18)	[-1.17,-0.47]
Marital status (ref: married/partnered)
Separated/divorced	1.17 (0.34)	[0.50,1.84]	0.93 (0.34)	[0.27,1.60]	1.03 (0.34)	[0.27,1.69]
Widowed	1.71 (0.31)	[1.12,2.31]	1.58 (0.30)	[0.99,2.16]	1.37 (0.30)	[0.78,1.95]
Never married	0.49 (0.29)	[-0.09,1.07]	0.13 (0.29)	[-0.43,0.70]	0.37 (0.29)	[-0.19,0.93]
Employment status
Employed (any)	0.08 (0.13)	[-0.18,0.33]	0.11 (0.13)	[-0.13,0.36]	0.18 (0.13)	[-0.07,0.42]
Respondent-level
Gender
Female	−0.73 (0.49)	[-1.69,0.22]	−0.76 (0.50)	[-1.73,0.21]	−0.60 (0.49)	[-1.50,0.35]
Race and ethnicity (ref: N–H White)
N–H Black	−0.24 (0.58)	[-1.38,0.90]	−0.20 (0.60)	[-1.37,0.96]	−0.18 (0.59)	[-1.33,0.97]
N–B Hispanic	−0.10 (0.78)	[-1.64,1.43]	−0.12 (0.80)	[-1.69,1.45]	−0.01 (0.79)	[-1.52,1.57]
Education (ref: some HS)
High school	−0.64 (0.81)	[-2.23,0.94]	−0.63 (0.82)	[-2.24,0.98]	−0.76 (0.81)	[-2.35,0.83]
Some college	0.31 (0.74)	[-1.14,1.76]	0.38 (0.75)	[-1.10,1.86]	0.09 (0.74)	[-1.37,1.54]
College +	−0.24 (0.80)	[-1.82,1.33]	−0.24 (0.81)	[-1.85,1.36]	−0.42 (0.81)	[-2.01,1.16]
Age at baseline	0.00 (0.04)	[-0.08,0.08]	0.00 (0.04)	[-0.09,0.08]	0.00 (0.04)	[-0.08,0.08]
Previous loneliness report	1.21 (0.05)	[1.11,1.32]	1.22 (0.05)	[1.12,1.32]	1.23 (0.05)	[1.13,1.34]
Cut point 1	4.72	[-1.64,11.08]	4.65	[-1.84,11.13]	4.90	[-1.47,11.28]
Cut point 2	7.45	[1.09,13.81]	7.39	[9.91,13.88]	7.68	[1.30,14.06]
Cut point 3	10.03	[3.66,16.39]	9.97	[3.48,16.45]	10.26	[3.88,16.65]
Variance components
Respondent-level variance	5.80 1.10	[3.62,7.98]	6.21 1.19	[3.87,8.54]	5.88 1.12	[3.68,8.07]
Additional information
Log likelihood	−4406.2		−4388.3		−4343.4
R2	0.52		0.52		0.53
Number of EMA observations	13330		13330		13330
Number of respondents	110		110		110

Note: Standard errors are presented below estimates, with 95% confidence intervals (CIs) to the right. Measures of loneliness are coded so that higher values represent greater loneliness.

Table S3.

Multilevel ordered logistic regression models reporting coefficients and standard errors for loneliness regressed on the interaction between context and the pandemic

	Home		Alone
	β (SE)	95% CI	β (SE)	95% CI
EMA-level
COVID-19	0.94 (0.13)	[0.68,1.19]	0.61 (0.12)	[0.38,0.84]
Location (ref: home)
At home	1.07 (0.12)	[0.84,1.30]
Who with (ref: alone)
Alone			1.13 (0.11)	[0.90,1.35]
COVID-19 x at home	−0.87 (0.15)	[-1.16,-0.58]
COVID-19 x alone			−0.46 (0.14)	[-0.73,-0.18]
Health status (ref: excellent/very good)
Good	−0.27 (0.11)	[-0.49,-0.05]	−0.26 (0.11)	[-0.48,0.03]
Fair/poor	−0.86 (0.18)	[-1.22,-0.50]	−0.85 (0.18)	[-1.21,-0.49]
Marital status (ref: married/partnered)
Separated/divorced	1.12 (0.35)	[0.44,1.80]	1.23 (0.34)	[0.56,1.90]
Widowed	1.94 (0.31)	[1.34,2.55]	1.56 (0.31)	[0.96,2.16]
Never married	0.47 (0.30)	[-0.11,1.05]	0.64 (0.30)	[0.06,1.22]
Employment status
Employed (any)	−0.06 (0.13)	[-0.31,0.20]	0.13 (0.13)	[-0.13,0.39]
Respondent-level
Gender
Female	−0.82 (0.50)	[-1.79,0.16]	−0.63 (0.49)	[-1.59,0.32]
Race and ethnicity (ref: N–H White)
N–H Black	−0.26 (0.60)	[-1.43,0.91]	−0.24 (0.58)	[-1.38,0.91]
N–B Hispanic	−0.10 (0.80)	[-1.68,1.47]	−0.06 (0.79)	[-1.48,1.60]
Education (ref: some HS)
High school	−0.55 (0.82)	[-2.17,1.07]	−0.74 (0.81)	[-2.32,0.85]
Some college	0.43 (0.76)	[-1.06,1.91]	0.10 (0.74)	[-1.35,1.55]
College +	−0.11 (0.82)	[-1.72,1.49]	−0.37 (0.81)	[-1.95,1.21]
Age at baseline	0.00 (0.04)	[-0.09,0.08]	0.00 (0.04)	[-0.08,0.08]
Previous loneliness report	1.18 (0.05)	[1.08,1.28]	1.21 (0.05)	[1.11,1.31]
Cut point 1	5.30	[-1.21,11.82]	5.31	[-1.26,11.69]
Cut point 2	8.07	[1.55,14.59]	8.10	[1.72,14.48]
Cut point 3	10.69	[4.17,17.21]	10.71	[4.33,17.10]
Variance components
Respondent-level variance	6.25 1.20	[3.90,8.60]	5.81 1.10	[3.64,7.97]
Additional information
Log likelihood	−4362.1		−4337.7
R2	0.53		0.53
Number of EMA observations	13330		13330
Number of respondents	110		110

Note: Standard errors are presented below estimates, with 95% confidence intervals (CIs) to the right. Measures of loneliness are coded so that higher values represent greater loneliness.

Table S4.

Multilevel linear regression models reporting coefficients and standard errors for loneliness regressed on the interaction between combined physical and social context and the pandemic

	β (SE)	95% CI
EMA-level
COVID-19	−0.01 (0.01)	[-0.03,0.02]
Location and who with (ref: home and alone)
Home and not alone	−0.08 (0.01)	[-0.11,-0.06]
Not home and alone	−0.09 (0.02)	[-0.12,-0.05]
Not home and not alone	−0.17 (0.01)	[-0.19,-0.14]
COVID-19 x at home and not alone	0.02 (0.02)	[0.01,0.05]
COVID-19 x not at home and alone	0.08 (0.02)	[0.03,0.12]
COVID-19 x not home and alone X COVID	0.10 (0.02)	[0.06,0.14]
Health status (ref: excellent/very good)
Good	−0.02 (0.01)	[-0.04,0.00]
Fair/poor	−0.07 (0.02)	[-0.11,-0.04]
Marital status (ref: married/partnered)
Separated/divorced	0.10 (0.03)	[0.03,0.16]
Widowed	0.18 (0.03)	[0.12,0.24]
Never married	0.13 (0.04)	[0.05,0.20]
Employment status
Employed (any)	0.00 (0.01)	[-0.02,0.02]
Respondent-level
Gender
Female	−0.07 (0.05)	[-0.17,0.04]
Race and ethnicity (ref: N–H White)
N–H Black	−0.03 (0.07)	[-0.15,0.10]
N–B Hispanic	−0.03 (0.09)	[-0.20,0.14]
Education
High school	−0.04 (0.09)	[-0.21,0.14]
Some college	0.03 (0.08)	[-0.13,0.19]
College +	−0.04 (0.09)	[-0.21,0.14]
Age at baseline	0.00 (0.00)	[-0.01,0.01]
Previous loneliness report	0.32 (0.01)	[0.30,0.33]
Constant	0.81 (0.36)	[0.10,1.51]
Additional information
Respondent-level variance	0.07
EMA-level variance	0.13
Log likelihood	−5511.48
R2	0.38
Number of EMA observations	13330
Number of respondents	110

Note: Standard errors are presenting below estimates, with 95% confidence intervals (CIs) to the right. Measures of loneliness are coded so that higher values represent greater loneliness.