Skip to main content
NCBI home page
Ambio logoLink to Ambio
. 2024 Feb 16;53(7):1077–1091. doi: 10.1007/s13280-024-01988-8

Ecological barriers: An approach to ecological conservation and restoration in China

Xiaoxue Wang 1, Xiaofeng Wang 1,3,✉, Xinrong Zhang 2, Jitao Zhou 1, Zixu Jia 5, Jiahao Ma 6, Wenjie Yao 1, You Tu 1, Zechong Sun 1, Yuhan Wei 4
PMCID: PMC11101397  PMID: 38366296

Abstract

The Chinese government has pursued comprehensive ecological conservation and restoration by establishing an ecological barrier system. However, the majority of international research tends to focus on the connectivity between habitats, overlooking the functions that ecological barriers play in ecological conservation and restoration. The existing literature lacks a systematic exploration of the theory and practice of ecological barriers. This study employed the literature analysis tool CiteSpace to present the theoretical and developmental trends in ecological barriers from various perspectives, including research fields, historical evolution, research hotspots, and major research nations. By analyzing the differences in the understanding of ecological barriers between China and other countries, examining the ecological barriers construction history in China, and exploring the types and functions of ecological barriers, this study summarizes the framework of China’s ecological barriers construction system as “features–functions–problems.” Constructing an ecological barrier system can help achieve ecological conservation and restoration goals in China.

Keywords: Ecological barrier, Ecological protection, Ecological restoration

Introduction

In the context of global environmental change, the increasingly detrimental consequences of inappropriate land-use development and human activity patterns on the ecological environment are becoming evident. These practices alter ecosystem types, patterns, and ecological processes, leading to ecosystem function disruption and degradation, which in turn negatively impact the capacity of ecosystems to provide services. This poses a significant threat to human development (Bai et al. 2014; Abrahms et al. 2023). The systematic integration and research of national-level ecological conservation and restoration systems are important for coordinating global efforts for ecological conservation and restoration. This approach helps prevent further expansion of ecological degradation risks and promotes sustainable global development (Lengefeld et al. 2022).

To safeguard ecosystem quality and enhance human well-being, several ecological conservation measures that target various ecological issues and conservation objectives have been implemented worldwide (Xu et al. 2021). In the late 1990s, China initiated large-scale ecological conservation and restoration projects (He 2009; Lü et al. 2011). By constructing protected areas and implementing ecological restoration projects, China has made significant progress in addressing ecological degradation issues in specific regions such as the Loess Plateau (Li et al. 2021). In this context, the construction of ecological barriers in China has been proposed and has been continuously developed as a pivotal territorial governance strategy for guiding ecological conservation and restoration efforts in key regions. This strategy plays a crucial role in maintaining national ecological security.

The “ecological barriers” concept originates from China’s practical experiences in social production rather than being strictly a scientific term. Systematic discussions on the ecological barriers concept began in 2001, during the “Upper Yangtze River Ecological Barrier Construction Seminar” convened by the Sichuan Forestry Society (Sichuan Forestry Society Office 2002). Subsequently, academic discussions regarding ecological barrier theory and methodologies have continued to progress (Chen 2002; Yang 2002; Pan et al. 2004; Zhong et al. 2006). The theoretical foundation of the ecological barrier concept draws primarily from restoration ecology, encompassing elements of both conservation and ecosystem ecology (Wang et al. 2005). This represents a crucial ecological restoration measure capable of altering patterns and processes within ecosystems while concurrently promoting regional ecosystem service recovery and enhancement (Lü et al. 2006).

To date, China has made numerous significant accomplishments in the ecological barrier construction realm, including the expansion of forested areas (Zhou and Liu 2021) and the delineation of priority zones for biodiversity conservation (Wei et al. 2021). While some scholars believe that ecological barriers may affect the connectivity between habitats and thus impact the conservation and restoration of ecosystems (Chen et al. 2023; Linero-Triana et al. 2023), there are also studies indicating that constructing ecological barriers is beneficial for preserving biodiversity (Hermoso et al. 2015). A comprehensive understanding and systematic discourse on the ecological barrier theory remains lacking. Consequently, ecological barriers—their definition, aims for construction, methods, and benefits for sustainable development compared to other ecological initiatives—have emerged as topics of significant interest.

Presently, China’s understanding and practical implementation of ecological barrier theory can be roughly divided into three tiers. As a strategic means of upholding national ecological security, ecological barriers require an initial focus on the distinct natural baseline features of different regions. Variations in temperature, precipitation, geological topography, and the interaction between land and sea have contributed to the formation of distinct geographical units such as plateaus, mountainous regions, lakes, and rivers. These units are delineated based on natural geographical patterns and constitute the fundamental framework of the national ecological barrier system. Furthermore, ecosystems enclosed within ecological barriers can provide various services. The ecosystem services offered by ecological barriers can meet the sustainable development needs of both the ecological barrier region and surrounding areas. The service functions provided by ecological barriers are the focus of ecosystem protection. Moreover, various forms of ecological degradation may occur owing to human activities and climate change. Under such circumstances, the primary focus of ecological barrier construction is the artificial restoration of areas already affected by ecosystem problems. The principal approach involves constructing ecological barrier projects. The three-tiered system of ecological barrier construction in China, organized around “features–functions–problems,” can potentially offer valuable insights into ecological conservation and restoration management in other countries worldwide.

"Materials and methods" section of this paper introduces the materials and methods employed for the literature analysis, and "Literature analysis results" section presents the literature analysis findings, encompassing international research advancements, focal points, and trends in the ecological barriers field. "Implementation of ecological barrier theory in China" section expounds on the foundational theories of China’s ecological barriers, covering their developmental history, types, and characteristics, along with the specific content of the “features–functions–problems” framework. "Discussion of policy implication and governance challenges of ecological barriers" section explores and interprets the policy impacts on the construction of ecological barrier systems and the challenges that need to be addressed.

Materials and methods

This study commenced with a systematic analysis of the theory and developmental trends of ecological barriers using the Web of Science (WOS) core database as the primary data source. A thematic keyword search was conducted from 1900 to 2022 to identify the key terms relevant to ecological barriers. To ensure comprehensive retrieval, the search encompassed synonymous terms such as “ecological barrier,” “ecological defense,” “ecological shelter,” “ecosystem screen,” “ecological hurdle,” “ecosystem shields,” “ecological safety shelter zone,” “ecological security barrier,” “ecological safety barrier,” “ecological security defense,” “ecological security shelter,” “ecological safety shelter,” “safe ecological barrier,” “ecological barrier zone,” “ecological barrier area,” “ecological buffer area,” “ecological security barrier area,” and similar phrases. The type of document was “Article OR Review,” and the document content was “full record and cited references,” including Author, title, original text, abstract, and cited references. The results were exported in a specified plain-text format, totaling 4364 papers.

Well-known literature analysis tools include CiteSpace, VOSviewer, UCINET, BibExcel, SPSS, and HistCite, among which CiteSpace, developed by Professor Dr. Chaomei Chen’s team for dynamic and complex network analysis and data visualization, is the most widely used (Chen et al. 2010; Hu et al. 2013). To facilitate the literature review, we used CiteSpace, which helps to realize keyword clustering, word frequency statistics, keyword emergence, and other operations to explore research trends and hotspot evolution. In this study, we used keyword clustering analysis to analyze the research themes of the literature related to ecological barriers. Keyword frequency statistics were conducted on the research fields related to ecological barriers, the number of papers, and the main publishing countries of papers to reveal the research trends, research contents, and key research regions in the ecological barriers field. Keyword emergence analysis was able to discover significant changes in the number of certain keywords within a short period, thus reflecting new research hotspots and emergence times. These aspects can help us understand the research lineage and developmental history related to ecological barriers.

EXCEL was used for statistical analysis of the data obtained from CiteSpace, while ArcGIS 10.8 was employed for map plotting. However, it is important to acknowledge that the timeliness of existing knowledge and literature surveys introduces potential limitations. The current compilation of literature and clustering analysis results may not completely capture the latest developments in ecological barrier research because recent studies published after the retrieval date may not have been included. Additionally, limitations stemming from factors such as article language, database coverage, retrieval timeframe within the WOS database, and variations in the parameter settings employed for clustering analysis in CiteSpace may result in incomplete coverage and potential variations in statistical accuracy during literature analysis and assessment.

Literature analysis results

Literature analysis revealed that research on ecological barriers primarily focuses on four key dimensions. First, it delves into the definition, connotation, scope, significance, and developmental trends of ecological barriers within different disciplinary contexts and establishes connections with fields such as biogeography and landscape ecology. Second, it explores the impacts of climate change on barrier regions, including changes in ecosystem types, vegetation, and biodiversity, and their effects on the structure and function of these areas. Third, it evaluates the construction of ecological barriers, encompassing the formulation of ecological protection policies, the implementation of ecological protection projects, and the wider influence of barrier area development on human society, economics, and sustainable growth. Lastly, ongoing innovation in research models and patterns predominantly centers on the refinement and improvement of techniques, such as simulation methods and analytical approaches.

Research field

Subject classification statistics were performed on the 4364 papers exported from the WOS database. The top ten research directions of ecological barriers from 1975 to 2022 include environmental science ecology, zoology, science and technology other topics, evolutionary biology, geology, biodiversity conservation, physical geography, genetics, botany, and biochemistry, with the number of studies on environmental science ecology being 1892, which is much higher than the other research directions. Not only does the ecological barriers concept exist in the fields of environmental ecology, geography, biodiversity conservation, ecosystem conservation, and restoration related to macroecology, but it is also widely mentioned in the fields of species migration, gene exchange, and genetics (Fig. 1).

Fig. 1.

Fig. 1

Open in a new tab

Research directions regarding ecological barriers considering 4364 publications published between 1975 and 2022

Research history and current research hotspots

Based on keyword frequency statistics, 25 keywords appeared 100 times or more. Among them, the top 5 keywords in terms of frequency are “climate change,” “evolution,” “pattern,” “impact,” and “diversity.” “climate change” has become the most frequently occurring keyword, appearing a total of 544 times, indicating that climate change is a crucial background factor in research related to ecological barriers. Two specific regions mentioned in the keywords are “China” and the “Qinghai-Tibet Plateau,” appearing 229 and 123 times, respectively, suggesting that China is a significant region in ecological barrier research, and the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau is considered a “key indicator” of fragile ecological environments and climate change, making it a focal point in ecological barrier-related studies in China. The evolving focus, with “climate” emerging in 2001, “population” in 2005, and “climate change” in 2010, suggests that researchers have broadened their scope. They initially studied the impact of specific climatic conditions on ecological barriers, but have since shifted to examining the broader and more complex effects of both climate change and human activities on these critical environmental safeguards. This diversification of the influencing factors is evident. Keywords related to vegetation, such as “vegetation” and “forest,” have higher frequencies, with 152 and 101 occurrences, respectively. The terms “ecosystem services” and “land use,” with 173 and 142 occurrences, respectively, represent the link between natural and social ecosystems. These terms emerged around 2010, suggesting that since 2010, ecological barrier research has encompassed various complex systems, including natural and social systems and the interactions between different systems (Fig. 2).

Fig. 2.

Fig. 2

Open in a new tab

Keywords clustering analysis of ecological barriers in 4364 publications from 1975 to 2022 using CiteSpace

In CiteSpace, the citation bursts index can be used to measure the frequency of a specific topic or keyword appearing over a period, indicating the level of activity and sudden increasing trends of that topic during a particular timeframe. This index serves as an indicator of the prominence of a specific topic or keyword within a particular timeframe in CiteSpace. The higher the index, the greater the impact of the keyword during a specific time interval. Notably, the Burstiness Index for “differentiation” was observed to be the highest, reaching a value of 14.87. Similar keywords to this expression included “range shift” and “hybrid zone.” This observation indicates that ecological barrier construction and research exhibit strong regional characteristics in different areas. “Biogeography” has the second-highest citation burst index, reaching 12.4. Biogeography is the scientific study of the distribution of organisms and their relationships with the geographic environment. Associated keywords in the citation bursts include “distribution,” “distance,” and “species richness.” These keywords are closely related to the research on ecological barriers. Furthermore, the two keywords represent specific regions. “North America” appeared as early as 2006 and remained at the forefront of research until 2018, maintaining high research attention for 13 consecutive years. This indicates that research on ecological barriers in North America began early and has continued for an extended period. Another keyword representing a research region is “Southeast Asia,” which emerged in 2012. Its citation burst index is higher than that of “North America.” Both regions are key research areas for addressing ecological barriers (Fig. 3).

Fig. 3.

Fig. 3

Open in a new tab

Keywords citation bursts analysis of ecological barriers in 4364 publications from 1975 to 2022 using CiteSpace

Research countries

To understand the international research region distribution, countries (regions) involved in ecological barrier research were searched for a comprehensive analysis. The top 10 countries in terms of international publications are China, the USA, the United Kingdom, Germany, Canada, France, Australia, Spain, Brazil, and Italy. China and the USA have published far more studies than other countries, indicating that these two countries are leading research in the field of ecological barriers. Among the top 10 publishers, only China and Brazil are developing countries, and the high number of publications may be related to the large size of their territories and the presence of landmark ecological barriers of wide influence (e.g., the Tibetan Plateau and the Mississippi River) (Fig. 4).

Fig. 4.

Fig. 4

Open in a new tab

Research countries analysis of ecological barriers in 4364 publications from 1975 to 2022 using CiteSpace

Implementation of ecological barrier theory in China

Differences in the understanding of ecological barriers between China and other countries

In studies conducted worldwide, the term “ecological barrier” is used to refer to geographic units, which may include mountains, rivers, roads, bridges, dams, and cities. Whether natural or artificially constructed, these geographic units have the potential to impede biodiversity, creating certain difficulties for the exchange of ecosystems, species, and genes across different geographic units. Therefore, some studies have suggested that the higher the habitat connectivity, the better the conservation of biodiversity and ecosystems (Caplat et al. 2016). However, artificial barriers and buffer zones, such as fences and dams, are also considered to effectively protect biodiversity and serve as cost-effective, high-yield solutions to prevent species invasion and disease spread (Hermoso et al. 2015).

There were significant differences in the understanding of “ecological barriers” between China and other countries. In most studies conducted in other countries, ecological barriers are generally considered specific impediments or human activities with defined locations and construction purposes. However, in China, the term “ecological barriers” is understood from multiple perspectives. Firstly, the expression of “ecological barriers” in various forms includes natural geographic units like mountains and rivers, various types of ecosystems such as forests and grasslands, as well as conservation areas or road constructions established by humans for ecological preservation, restoration, or socioeconomic development. Secondly, “ecological barriers” is a neutral term, and ecological barriers do not inherently have either entirely positive or entirely negative impacts on nature. For example, complex geographic units may pose challenges for ecosystem preservation and restoration, but their varying characteristics also serve as foundational conditions for the existing ecosystem and biodiversity distribution patterns. Additionally, in the practical process of ecological barrier construction, “ecological barriers” can serve as a collective term for important focal research areas such as the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau and Loess Plateau ecological barrier regions. With the introduction of policies such as national functional zoning and the overall plan for major ecological protection and restoration projects, constructing an ecological barrier system has become a management strategy for maintaining national ecological security and reversing the state of ecological degradation. The construction of an ecological barrier system is an integral part of China’s ecological civilization. It respects the laws of natural development and embodies the comprehensiveness and unity of ecological preservation and restoration. The ideas reflected in the process of constructing the ecological barrier system are highly consistent with traditional Chinese ecological philosophical concepts such as “the Taoway follows nature” and Confucianism’s advocacy of the “unity of man and nature” (Zhang and Fu 2023).

Development process of ecological barriers in China

The development process of ecological barriers in China is divided into three main stages, namely the social production practice stage, the stage of solving specific ecological problems, and the national ecological management strategy stage, during which the understanding of ecological barriers has been gradually improved and the application scope has been expanded (Fig. 5).

Fig. 5.

Fig. 5

Open in a new tab

The main stage of the ecological barrier development process

In China, ecological barriers were the products of the earliest social production practices. Combined with the experience of the drought struggle, the forests of the Daxing’an Mountains are considered to be an ecological barrier for agriculture in Hulunbeier City (Shi 1982), and the southern forest region (Jiang 1998) as well as the northwest region (Deng and Chen 2000) are considered to be important ecological barriers for protecting the regional and even national ecological environment. Understanding of ecological barriers is limited to the influence of the characteristics of natural geographical units on their ecological environment and the surrounding ecological environment.

In the late 1990s, the Chinese government and people realized the great ecological degradation crisis for future development and started constructing large-scale ecological restoration projects. The construction of ecological barriers was an effective way to solve various ecological problems and played an important role in the ecological restoration of several regions. In this process, the functions of the ecological barriers are linked to the corresponding ecosystem services, and the specific locations and functions performed by the ecological barriers are determined through various ecosystem services (Chen 2002; Yang 2002; Pan et al. 2004).

Integrating ecological barriers with ecosystem services enables ecological barrier function quantification. This approach also allows for the determination of the ecological barrier effects of ecosystems with different ecological barrier functions by assessing ecosystem services (Bao et al. 2002; Ma and Gai 2004; Shi 2020). Simultaneously, ecosystem services can closely link natural ecosystems with social-ecological systems, expand the application scope of ecological barriers, and lay the foundation for ecological barrier systems to become an important strategy for integrated spatial management.

In 2011, the National Main Functional Area Plan proposed the construction of “two barriers and three belts” ecological security strategic patterns with the ecological barrier of the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau, the ecological barrier of Loess Plateau-Sichuan-Yunnan, the northeastern forest belt, the northern sand control belt, and the southern hilly belt, as well as the important water system of major rivers as a skeleton, supported by other key national functional areas, and the national prohibited development zone in a dotted distribution as an important component (Ou’yang et al. 2014; Notice of the State Council on the issuance of the national main functional area plan 2023). The construction of an ecological barrier system has become crucial for establishing national ecological security strategies. For the integrated development of land and sea and the overall ecological environment protection, the construction of marine ecological barriers, recognized for their crucial role in safeguarding the sustainable economic and social development of offshore areas, has emerged as a prominent area of focus (Bai and Cheng 2016; Cao and Xie 2021).

Based on the “two barriers and three belts” national terrestrial ecological security patterns, the Chinese government has proposed a master plan for Major Projects for the Protection and Restoration of Important National Ecosystems (2021–2035), shifting the focus of comprehensive territorial spatial management from the construction of a strategic ecological security pattern to the construction of a national major ecosystem protection and restoration project pattern. Integrated ecosystem protection and major ecological restoration projects, the main management areas are extended to the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau Ecological Barrier Area, the Yellow River Key Ecological Function Area, the Yangtze River Key Ecological Function Area, the Northern Sand Control Belt, the Northeast Forest Belt, and the Coastal Belt, referred to as the “three zones and four belts” (Notice of the National Development and Reform Commission and the Ministry of Natural Resources on the Issuance of the Master Plan of Major Projects for the Protection and Restoration of Important National Ecosystems (2021–2035) 2023).

Ecological barriers originated from social production practices, and with the continuous expansion of the application scope, they were finally applied to a comprehensive management strategy for national land space that integrates ecological protection and restoration, improving the ecological environment and enhancing human welfare.

Types and functions of ecological barriers in China

In China, ecological barriers have derived multiple meanings and formed comprehensive management strategies for ecological protection and restoration of national land space, such as “two barriers and three belts” and “three zones and four belts.” However, in terms of specific application and implementation, only a few studies have raised issues to be considered when constructing ecological barrier systems at the regional scale (Zhong et al. 2006; Sun et al. 2012). Comprehensive research on building and evaluating the impact of ecological barrier systems on both ecological protection and restoration, especially from a macro perspective, remains lacking.

The spatial locations of ecological barriers, geological landforms, water and heat conditions, and other basic geographic elements vary, resulting in a lack of uniform norms for the type and classification of ecological barriers. Wang et al. (2016) classified ecological barriers according to different criteria. Ecological barriers can be classified as natural, artificial, and composite based on the presence or absence of human factors. They can also be categorized into visible and not visible ecological barriers, depending on their visibility. Ecological barriers can be classified as soft and hard based on their physical properties. In terms of scale, they can be classified as large-scale, medium-scale, and small-scale ecological barriers. Based on the supply and demand of ecological services, ecological barriers can be further categorized into positively service-protective, negatively service-protective, and service-degradation restorative barriers, emphasizing the significance of ecosystem services. Moreover, with the widespread application of the ecological barrier concept, they can also be classified into terrestrial, marine, and coastal zone ecological barriers, based on their location on land or in the ocean (Table 1).

Table 1.

Ecological barrier types and classification criteria

Criteria Types of ecological barriers Examples
Human involvement Natural ecological barrier Qinling Mountains
Artificial ecological barrier Highway Green Belt
Composite ecological barrier The “Three-North Shelterbelt”
Visibility Visible barrier High mountains
Not visible barrier Factors such as precipitation and temperature accumulation have obvious effects on vegetation distribution and are hidden
Physical properties Soft ecological barrier Laws, instructions, notices, etc.
Hard ecological barrier Fences, forests
Spatial scale Large-scale ecological barrier Great Wall, The “Three-North Shelterbelt”
Medium-scale ecological barrier Farmland protection forest, river embankment
Small-scale ecological barrier Ridge
Ecosystem services Positively service-protective type Northeast Forest Belt
Negatively service-protective type Northern anti-sand belt
Service-degradation restorative type Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau
Environmental realm Terrestrial ecological barrier Terrestrial mountains and rivers
Marine ecological barrier The Great Barrier Reef
Coastal zone ecological barrier Coastal breakwaters, windbreaks
Open in a new tab

Features–functions–problems framework of ecological barriers

In the process of constructing an ecological barrier system in China, it is essential to first clarify the geographical background conditions in different regions. The most immediate understanding of ecological barriers pertains to natural background characteristics determined by factors such as altitude, geological landforms, and marine-land relationships within specific study areas. Various geographic units, such as mountains, plateaus, hills, basins, lakes, and rivers, are formed through ecological processes, including geological and tectonic movements, hydrological processes, and soil and water processes. These geographical units constitute feature-based ecological barriers. This type of ecological barrier naturally segregates regional geographical patterns with relatively fixed locations and stable structures that are not very susceptible to changes over time. They can influence climate, creating different hydrothermal conditions, soil environments, and biological distribution characteristics. These serve as the backbone of the entire ecological barrier system.

Under the combined influence of geographical and climatic patterns, various types of ecosystems and their distribution patterns have emerged, leading to diverse landscape patterns. The construction of ecological barrier systems focuses on safeguarding barrier areas with significant ecological functions. This process centers on preserving barrier areas with vital ecological functions.

Ecosystem services serve as crucial tools to reflect the functions of ecological barriers. They allow for the quantification of the importance of ecosystems in providing for human well-being and biodiversity conservation, among other aspects. Regions with higher-quality and more diverse ecosystem services form the foundation of biodiversity conservation, human survival, and development. These regions constitute service-functional ecological barriers and require focused protection such as forest ecosystems that provide carbon sequestration services and farmland ecosystems that offer food supply services. Regions with low ecosystem service functionality tend to have weaker resistance to external disturbances, making them susceptible to ecological degradation. For instance, areas such as the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau ecological barrier region and arid regions in Northwestern China fall into this category. The construction of ecological barriers in these regions focuses on attribution analysis related to the lower ecosystem service functionality. If the reduction in ecosystem service functionality is caused by excessive human activity, the timely construction of corresponding ecological restoration projects is required (Zhang et al. 2022). Given natural baseline conditions, the maintenance of regional biodiversity and ecosystem services can be achieved by establishing protected areas (Zhang et al. 2018).

Human activities have led to various ecological degradation issues, such as land allocation, supply and demand, resource utilization, and biodiversity loss. The Chinese government has undertaken numerous ecological restoration projects to alleviate the pressures of ecological degradation. Ecological restoration projects are remedial measures undertaken to restore damaged ecosystems through engineering. Within the integrated framework of ecological protection and the restoration of an ecological barrier system, these can be referred to as problem-oriented ecological barriers. For example, the “Three-North Shelterbelt” constructed through afforestation has mitigated the issue of wind and sand erosion in northern China. Terraces and silt dams have been constructed in the Loess Plateau region to ensure food production and comprehensive soil and water conservation management. The construction of problem-oriented ecological barriers can enhance ecosystem functionality and stability, promote the development of service-functional ecological barriers, and generate positive feedback effects on geographical feature-based ecological barriers.

The three-level ecological barrier system of features–functions–problems respects different ecological background conditions, integrates ecosystem protection and ecological restoration projects, and reduces the fragmentation of ecological barriers caused by policies and other rigid conditions. This fully considers the coupled relationship between the natural environment and ecological habitats. With the basic layout of geographical units as the framework, ecosystem service functions as the link, and ecological degradation as the breakthrough point, it not only aligns with the inherent requirements of modern nations that conform to nature, protect nature, and respect nature but also enables the entire “nature–economy–society” mega-system to form a closed loop and operate normally. This has led to the sustainable development of both nature and human society. This underscores the importance of constructing ecological barriers (Fig. 6).

Fig. 6.

Fig. 6

Open in a new tab

Ecological barrier construction system

Discussion of policy implication and governance challenges of ecological barriers

Policy foundation related to ecological barrier construction

As part of comprehensive process of spatial management and development of land, various planning strategies have been formulated for different stages of ecological management and priorities such as nature reserves, ecological redlines, and the integrated development of production, life, and ecological spaces. To promote a better understanding of China’s ecological barrier construction and related policies within the international community, we provide explanations here by combining the terminology, theories, and their relevance to the ecological barriers discussed in this research.

Natural reserves are areas of land and water that are important for the conservation of rare and endangered plants, animals, or features of special value, and are preserved and managed for conservation. Since the twentieth century, reserve strategies have become an important component of ecological conservation policies aimed at minimizing human impacts on biodiversity (Pyke and Andelman 2007). Protected areas are clearly defined as important geographical spaces that serve as essential tools for maintaining habitat integrity, ecological processes, and biodiversity conservation (Moss et al. 2015). They contribute to the achievement of the United Nations’ Sustainable Development Goals (Dudley et al. 2013).

The ecological red line indicates areas with particularly important ecological functions that must be subjected to mandatory and strict protection. It serves as the bottom line and lifeline for maintaining national ecological security. These areas typically include regions with significant hydrological importance, biodiversity preservation, soil and water conservation, desertification control, coastal ecological stability, and other critical functions. Additionally, it encompasses ecologically sensitive and vulnerable areas prone to soil erosion, land desertification, rocky desertification, salinization, and other environmental issues (Gao et al. 2020). China’s ecological red line system includes three types of red lines: red lines for ecosystem services areas, red lines for disaster mitigation and control areas, and red lines for biodiversity maintenance areas (Huan 2021). The ecological red line not only protects the biodiversity and landscapes of the region but also safeguards ecologically sensitive and vulnerable areas for various ecosystem services. It places greater emphasis on ecosystem functionality and human interests, requiring “strict control” in terms of further urbanization and industrial development in identified critical ecological regions and ecologically vulnerable areas (susceptible to the impacts of stress factors). In contrast to the ecological red line policy, ecological barriers delineation lacks strict standardized criteria. Instead, various ecological barrier construction systems were employed based on regional variations.

The integration of production–living–ecological spaces combines land use, ecosystem functions, and landscape functions, delineating the national territory from the land functions perspective (Li and Fang 2016; Liu et al. 2017). In the ecological restoration development stages in national territory space, China is currently in the second stage of implementing the “mountains, waters, forests, farmlands, lakes, and grasslands” integrated management system. Through appropriate human intervention, it aims to enhance the systematic arrangement and optimization of natural resource elements (Fu et al. 2021). This is similar to the role played by the construction of ecological barriers in comprehensive national territory space management. Emphasis was placed on the protection and restoration of ecological spaces composed of nature reserves, important ecological functional areas, and priority biodiversity areas. By strengthening the geographical understanding of ecological space, promoting green development, and shaping future national ecological security patterns, it aims to achieve harmonious coexistence between humans and nature (Gao et al. 2021).

In summary, production–living–ecological spaces encompass the entire spatial range of the national territory. The ecological space comprises nature reserves, important ecological functional areas, and priority biodiversity conservation areas, which are primarily delineated through policies and ecological conservation measures, such as ecological redlines, nature reserve designations, and national park construction. In areas experiencing ecological degradation, restoration is performed through ecological engineering. Ecological barrier systems serve as a crucial link between ecological conservation and restoration (Fig. 7).

Fig. 7.

Fig. 7

Open in a new tab

Relationship between ecological barrier system and other spatial governance strategies

Management and challenges of ecological barrier

Based on analyzing the global research progress on ecological barriers, this paper systematically introduces the development process of China’s ecological barriers, summarizes the types and functions of ecological barriers, and elucidates the current three-level ecological barrier construction system of “features–functions–problems.” We believe that ecological barriers should not be limited to obstacles or challenges to ecological restoration that hinder ecosystems from returning to their natural or ideal states. This approach may overlook the diversity of ecological barrier characteristics and functions. The construction of ecological barrier systems is essentially similar to the actions taken by other countries, such as Natura 2000 (European Commission and Office for Official Publications of the European Communities 2000), green infrastructure networks (Liquete et al. 2015), and ecological networks (Huang et al. 2023).

The primary purpose of the Natura 2000 protected areas network is to conserve birds, endangered flora and fauna, and their habitats, making it the world’s largest protected area network. Natura 2000 spans 27 European Union countries, and the decentralized nature of the protected areas in this network, driven by conservation goals, necessitates the coordination and contribution of relevant data between different countries in the practical processes of biodiversity and ecological environment conservation. The construction of China’s ecological barrier system requires considering complex natural and social backgrounds, including topography, ecosystem service functions, and various types of ecological issues. Notably, it emphasizes the comprehensive impact of fundamental geographical elements, ecosystem services, and various social activities. This approach has achieved significant success in protecting biodiversity and ecological environments in China. To replicate the construction of ecological barrier systems in other countries and regions worldwide, it is crucial to continuously integrate advanced ecological conservation and restoration concepts, considering the actual ecological conditions in different regions, and fostering communication both domestically and internationally. The construction of transnational ecological barrier systems poses significant challenges. The ecological barrier systems should be regarded as a dynamic and evolving process, with theory-guiding practices and practices refining existing theories and gradually forming a more comprehensive system.

Therefore, China’s ecological barrier theory research, system construction, and practical actions can provide valuable experiences and lessons for countries and regions facing similar ecological challenges. Thus, establishing a consensus on the core meaning of ecological barriers. Currently, there is no precise definition of ecological barriers, and there are significant differences in our understanding of these barriers between China and other countries. However, Chinese scholars generally believe that constructing an ecological barrier system has practical significance for national ecological security and sustainable regional development (Wang et al. 2020; Li et al. 2023). By constructing ecological barriers, the promotion of a virtuous cycle and sustainable utilization of ecosystems can be achieved (Zheng and Zhuang 2021). The impact of ecological barriers can vary and even be contradictory for different individuals and groups. Relocating residents from ecologically vulnerable areas or areas with high conservation value can reduce the damage inflicted by human activities on already fragile ecosystems (Zhang et al. 2021). However, ecological migrants still face a range of challenges in their daily lives, including difficulties in livelihood transition, cultural adaptation, and environmental adjustment (Li and Wang 2023). A unified understanding of the concept of ecological barriers is essential to ensure policy consistency and consensus among countries, departments, and stakeholders on the construction of ecological barrier systems.

Furthermore, there is a need to actively explore diverse approaches to ecological barrier construction. The construction of ecological barrier systems inevitably varies by country and region. The same ecological engineering method can serve different ecological barrier functions in different areas. For example, forest restoration projects in the Loess Plateau region of China primarily aim to prevent soil erosion (Chen et al. 2022), whereas the “Three-North Shelterbelt” project in China mainly focuses on windbreaks and sand fixation (Ma et al. 2022). The influence of regional and inter-regional natural conditions, economic factors, technological disparities, and other factors can result in the need for different ecological barrier construction approaches to achieve similar ecological protection and restoration goals, even if they are identical. Various types of ecological barrier zones and ecological barrier belts mentioned in the “Major Projects for the Protection and Restoration of Important National Ecosystems (2021–2035)” issued by the Chinese government were developed based on expert guidance and local development experience. These initiatives have explored effective practices for constructing ecological barrier systems to achieve ecological protection and restoration objectives in different regions. Therefore, other countries and regions should consider establishing ecological barrier zones, facilitating progressive collaboration among stakeholders, and exploring various approaches to their construction, moving away from rigid, standardized models.

Conclusion

Ecological barriers are a product of China’s social production practices, and their theoretical content and scope of application are continually evolving. Given the varying requirements for ecological conservation and restoration at different stages and the significant differences in natural and social development among different regions, China’s approach to ecological protection has shifted from localized conservation to environmental restoration through large-scale ecological engineering. Ultimately, it has developed into a major management strategy at the national level to coordinate ecological conservation and restoration. The rational construction of ecological barriers has had a highly positive impact on ecological protection and restoration in China, contributing to the realization of an ecological civilization concept that emphasizes respect for nature, conformity with nature, and nature conservation.

In China, the construction of ecological barrier systems has been integrated into land planning, utilization, and conservation management. When applying ecological barrier theory in practice, the construction follows the overarching theme of “features–functions–problems.” Firstly, there should be a comprehensive understanding of the natural background conditions of the implementation area, with a clear grasp of the distribution characteristics of key geographical features such as mountain ranges and rivers, as well as related ecological processes. Secondly, a thorough understanding of the distribution patterns of various landscapes and different ecosystem services in the area is needed to identify the key ecological functions it performs. Thirdly, it is crucial to identify significant ecological issues in the region and improve the ecological environment through the construction of ecological barrier projects.

Future construction of ecological barrier systems requires further refinement of the theoretical foundation. This involves organizing and summarizing the relationships between various ecological conservation policies and ecological barriers and clarifying the importance of ecological barrier construction for national and regional ecological environment protection and restoration. During the implementation of an ecological barrier system, research is needed on the ecological service benefits of the corresponding ecological barrier engineering construction, approaches to realizing ecological values, and ecological compensation mechanisms. A comprehensive consideration of the environmental impacts and socioeconomic benefits of ecological barrier system construction is essential from ecological, social, and economic aspects. Additionally, in the context of increasing natural disasters due to global warming, ecological barrier system construction needs to enhance its capacity to address future climate change, ensuring that achievements in national and regional ecological protection and restoration of land space can strongly support high-quality development in the future.

Biographies

Xiaoxue Wang

is a doctoral candidate at the Chang’an University. Her research interests include Ecosystem services and Eco-environmental management.

Xiaofeng Wang

is a Professor at the Chang’an University. His research interests include Ecosystem services and Ecological Remote Sensing.

Xinrong Zhang

is a doctoral candidate at the Chang’an University. Her research interests include Ecosystem services and Human-earth system coupling.

Jitao Zhou

is a doctoral candidate at the Chang’an University. His research interests include Ecosystem services and Eco-environmental management.

Zixu Jia

is a doctoral candidate at Chinese Academy of Sciences. His research interests include Ecosystem services and Ecosystem health.

Jiahao Ma

is a doctoral candidate at the Chang’an University. His research interests include Ecosystem services and Ecological Patterns.

Wenjie Yao

is a Master candidate at Chang’an University. Her research interests include Ecosystem services and Ecosystem service flow.

You Tu

is a Master candidate at the Chang’an University. Her research interests include Ecological restoration and management.

Zechong Sun

is a doctoral candidate at the Chang’an University. His research interests include Ecological remote sensing and Ecosystem services.

Yuhan Wei

is a Grade 11 Student at the Hamden Hall Country Day School. Her research interests include Ecological protection.

Funding

This work was supported by the National Natural Science Foundation of China (72349002), Second Tibetan Plateau Scientific Expedition and Research Program (20190ZKK0405), the Chinese Academy of Sciences, Strategic Pilot Science and Technology Project (Class A) (XDA2002040201), and the Fundamental Research Funds for the Central Universities, CHD (300102352201).

Declarations

Conflict of interest

The authors have no competing interests to declare that are relevant to the content of this article.

Footnotes

Publisher's Note

Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

References

  1. Abrahms B, Carter NH, Clark-Wolf TJ, Gaynor KM, Johansson E, McInturff A, Nisi AC, Rafiq K, et al. Climate Change as a Global Amplifier of Human–Wildlife Conflict. Nature Climate Change. 2023;13:224–234. doi: 10.1038/s41558-023-01608-5. [DOI] [Google Scholar]
  2. Bai J, Cheng J. The Construction of Marine Ecological Security Barrier: Theoretical Origins and System Innovation. Journal of Ocean University of China. 2016 doi: 10.16497/j.cnki.1672-335x.2016.06.003. [DOI] [Google Scholar]
  3. Bai X, Shi P, Liu Y. Society: Realizing China’s Urban Dream. Nature. 2014;509:158–160. doi: 10.1038/509158a. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  4. Bao Yin, Bao Yuhai, A Latengtuya, Wu Lantuya. Construction and Protection of Inner Mongolian Ecological Screen. Research of Soil and Water Conservation. 2002;9:62–65+72. [Google Scholar]
  5. Chen G. 2002. Discussion on Building the Ecological Barrier in the Upper Reaches of Yangtze River. Journal of Mountain Science 536–541 (in Chinese).
  6. Cao H, Xie Y. The Research on the Construction of Marine Ecological Security Barrier in the Bohai Sea. Journal of Ocean University of China (social Sciences Edition) 2021 doi: 10.16497/j.cnki.1672-335x.202101003. [DOI] [Google Scholar]
  7. Chen C, Ibekwe-SanJuan F, Hou J. The Structure and Dynamics of Cocitation Clusters: A Multiple-Perspective Cocitation Analysis. Journal of the American Society for Information Science and Technology. 2010;61:1386–1409. doi: 10.1002/asi.21309. [DOI] [Google Scholar]
  8. Caplat P, Edelaar P, Dudaniec RY, Green AJ, Okamura B, Cote J, Ekroos J, Jonsson PR, et al. Looking Beyond the Mountain: Dispersal Barriers in a Changing World. Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment. 2016;14:261–268. doi: 10.1002/fee.1280. [DOI] [Google Scholar]
  9. Chen H, Fleskens L, Schild J, Moolenaar S, Wang F, Ritsema C. Impacts of Large-Scale Landscape Restoration on Spatio-Temporal Dynamics of Ecosystem Services in the Chinese Loess Plateau. Landscape Ecology. 2022;37:329–346. doi: 10.1007/s10980-021-01346-z. [DOI] [Google Scholar]
  10. Chen X, Kang B, Li M, Du Z, Zhang L, Li H. Identification of Priority Areas for Territorial Ecological Conservation and Restoration Based on Ecological Networks: A Case Study of Tianjin City, China. Ecological Indicators. 2023;146:109809. doi: 10.1016/j.ecolind.2022.109809. [DOI] [Google Scholar]
  11. Deng Z, Chen C. Comprehensive Implementation of the Mountain and River Beauty Project to Improve the Ecological Environment in the Northwest. Soil and Water Conservation in China. 2000 doi: 10.14123/j.cnki.swcc.2000.05.003. [DOI] [Google Scholar]
  12. Dudley, N., P. Shadie, and S. Stolton. 2013. Guidelines for applying protected area management categories including IUCN WCPA best practice guidance on Recognising Protected Areas and Assigning Management Categories and Governance Types. Best Practice Protected Area Guidelines Series. The World Conservation Union (IUCN).
  13. European Commission, and Office for Official Publications of the European Communities, ed. 2000. Managing Natura 2000 Sites: The Provisions of Article 6 of the “Habitats” Directive 92/43/EEC. Luxembourg: Office for Official Publications of the European Communities.
  14. Fu B, Ou’yang Z, Shi P, Fan J, Wang X, Zheng H, Zhao W, Wu F. Current Condition and Protection Strategies of Qinghai-Tibet Plateau Ecological Security Barrier. Bulletin of Chinese Academy of Sciences. 2021;36:1298–1306. doi: 10.16418/j.issn.1000-3045.20210919001. [DOI] [Google Scholar]
  15. Gao J, Wang Y, Zou C, Xu D, Lin N, Wang L, Zhang K. China’s Ecological Conservation Redline: A Solution for Future Nature Conservation. Ambio. 2020;49:1519–1529. doi: 10.1007/s13280-019-01307-6. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  16. Gao J, Liu X, Wang C, Wang Y, Fu Z, Hou P, Lyu N. Evaluating Changes in Ecological Land and Effect of Protecting Important Ecological Spaces in China. Journal of Geographical Sciences. 2021;31:1245–1260. doi: 10.1007/s11442-021-1896-y. [DOI] [Google Scholar]
  17. He F. Price of Prosperity: Economic Development and Biological Conservation in China. Journal of Applied Ecology. 2009;46:511–515. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2664.2009.01641.x. [DOI] [Google Scholar]
  18. Huan, Q. 2021. National Ecological Civilization Pilot Zone: From Theory to Practice. In Beautiful China: 70 Years Since 1949 and 70 People’s Views on Eco-civilization Construction, ed. J. Pan, S. Gao, Q. Li, J. Wang, D. Wu, and C. Huang, 657–668. Singapore: Springer. 10.1007/978-981-33-6742-5_65.
  19. Hu Z, Sun J, Wu Y. Research Review on Application of Knowledge Mapping in China. Library and Information Service. 2013;57:131–137+84. [Google Scholar]
  20. Hermoso V, Januchowski-Hartley SR, Linke S. Systematic Planning of Disconnection to Enhance Conservation Success in a Modified World. Science of the Total Environment. 2015;536:1038–1044. doi: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2015.07.120. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  21. Huang B, Lu F, Wang X, Wu X, Zheng H, Su Y, Yuan Y, Ouyang Z. The Impact of Ecological Restoration on Ecosystem Services Change Modulated by Drought and Rising CO2. Global Change Biology. 2023 doi: 10.1111/gcb.16825. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  22. Jiang, Z. 1998. Constructing a Green Ecological Barrier for the Chinese Nation. Outlook pp. 7–9 (in Chinese).
  23. Li G, Fang C. Ouantitative Function Identification and Analysis of Urban Ecological-Production-Living Spaces. Acta Geographica Sinica. 2016;71:49–65. [Google Scholar]
  24. Li J, Wang W. Research Review and Prospect of Ecological Migration in China. Tropical Agricultural Engineering. 2023;47:114–121. [Google Scholar]
  25. Lü Y., Fu B., and Chen L. 2006. Ecological rehabilitation: a theoretical analysis. Acta Ecologica Sinica pp. 3891–3897 (in Chinese).
  26. Liu J, Liu Y, Li Y. Classification Evaluation and Spatial-Temporal Analysis of “Production-Living-Ecological” Spaces in China. Acta Geographica Sinica. 2017;72:1290–1304. [Google Scholar]
  27. Lengefeld E, Stringer LC, Nedungadi P. Livelihood Security Policy Can Support Ecosystem Restoration. Restoration Ecology. 2022;30:e13621. doi: 10.1111/rec.13621. [DOI] [Google Scholar]
  28. Li Y, Zhang X, Cao Z, Liu Z, Lu Z, Liu Y. Towards the Progress of Ecological Restoration and Economic Development in China’s Loess Plateau and Strategy for more Sustainable Development. Science of the Total Environment. 2021;756:143676. doi: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.143676. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  29. Linero-Triana D, Correa-Ayram CA, Velásquez-Tibatá J. Prioritizing Ecological Connectivity Among Protected Areas in Colombia Using a Functional Approach for Birds. Global Ecology and Conservation. 2023;48:e02713. doi: 10.1016/j.gecco.2023.e02713. [DOI] [Google Scholar]
  30. Liquete C, Kleeschulte S, Dige G, Maes J, Grizzetti B, Olah B, Zulian G. Mapping Green Infrastructure Based on Ecosystem Services and Ecological Networks: A Pan-European Case Study. Environmental Science & Policy. 2015;54:268–280. doi: 10.1016/j.envsci.2015.07.009. [DOI] [Google Scholar]
  31. Li C, Yingmei Wu, Gao B, Zheng K, Yan Wu, Wang M. Construction of Ecological Security Pattern of National Ecological Barriers for Ecosystem Health Maintenance. Ecological Indicators. 2023;146:109801. doi: 10.1016/j.ecolind.2022.109801. [DOI] [Google Scholar]
  32. Lü Y, Fu B, Wei W, Yu X, Sun R. Major Ecosystems in China: Dynamics and Challenges for Sustainable Management. Environmental Management. 2011;48:13–27. doi: 10.1007/s00267-011-9684-6. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  33. Ma S, Wang H-Y, Wang L-J, Jiang J, Gong J-W, Wu S, Luo G-Y. Evaluation and Simulation of Landscape Evolution and its Ecological Effects Under Vegetation Restoration in the Northern Sand Prevention Belt, China. CATENA. 2022;218:106555. doi: 10.1016/j.catena.2022.106555. [DOI] [Google Scholar]
  34. Ma, L., and Y. Gai. 2004. Plan of Protective Screen Construction in Inner Mongolian Autonomous Region. China Population Resources and Environment 79–82 (in Chinese).
  35. Moss A, Jensen E, Gusset M. Evaluating the Contribution of Zoos and Aquariums to Aichi Biodiversity Target 1. Conservation Biology. 2015;29:537–544. doi: 10.1111/cobi.12383. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  36. Notice of the National Development and Reform Commission and the Ministry of Natural Resources on the Issuance of the Master Plan of Major Projects for the Protection and Restoration of Important National Ecosystems (2021–2035). 2023. Retrieved April 5, 2023, from http://www.gov.cn/zhengce/zhengceku/2020-06/12/content_5518982.htm. (in Chinese).
  37. Notice of the State Council on the Issuance of the National Main Functional Area Plan. 2023. Retrieved March 29, 2023, from http://www.gov.cn/zwgk/2011-06/08/content_1879180.htm. (in Chinese).
  38. Ou’yang Z, Wang Q, Zheng H, Zhang F, Hou P. National Ecosystem Survey and Assessment of China (2000–2010) Bulletin of Chinese Academy of Sciences. 2014;29:462–466. [Google Scholar]
  39. Pan K, Wu N, Pan K, Chen Q. A Discussion on the Issues of the Re-construction of Ecological Shelter Zone on the Upper Reaches of the Yangtze River. Acta Ecologica Sinica. 2004;24:617–629. [Google Scholar]
  40. Pyke CR, Andelman SJ. Land Use and Land Cover Tools for Climate Adaptation. Climatic Change. 2007;80:239–251. doi: 10.1007/s10584-006-9110-x. [DOI] [Google Scholar]
  41. Shi Z. 1982. Experience in the struggle against drought in the agricultural area of Hulun. Inner Mongolia Agricultural Science and Technology 8–12 (in Chinese).
  42. Shi J. How to Build Inner Mongolia into an Ecological Security Barrier in North China—A Comment on the Construction of Ecological Security Barrier in Inner Mongolia. Journal of Inner Mongolia University of Finance and Economics. 2020;18:151. doi: 10.13895/j.cnki.jimufe.2020.02.043. [DOI] [Google Scholar]
  43. Sichuan Forestry Society Office Proceedings of the Sichuan Forestry Society Academic Symposium on Building the Ecological Barrier in the Upper Yangtze River. Journal of Sichuan Forestry Science and Technology. 2002 doi: 10.16779/j.cnki.1003-5508.2002.01.008. [DOI] [Google Scholar]
  44. Sun H, Zheng D, Yao T, Zhang Y. Protection and Construction of the National Ecological Security Shelter Zone on Tibetan Plateau. Acta Geographica Sinica. 2012;67:3–12. [Google Scholar]
  45. Wang Y, Deng Y, Peng P, Fan J. A Discussion on Function and Characteristics of Ecological Defence. Bulletin of Soil and Water Conservation. 2005 doi: 10.13961/j.cnki.stbctb.2005.04.027. [DOI] [Google Scholar]
  46. Wang X, Yin L, Zhang Y. Discussion on Some Issues of Ecological Barrier. Ecology and Environmental Sciences. 2016;25:2035–2040. doi: 10.16258/j.cnki.1674-5906.2016.12.020. [DOI] [Google Scholar]
  47. Wang X, Li Y, Chu B, Liu S, Yang D, Luan J. Spatiotemporal Dynamics and Driving Forces of Ecosystem Changes: A Case Study of the National Barrier Zone, China. Sustainability. 2020;12:6680. doi: 10.3390/su12166680. [DOI] [Google Scholar]
  48. Wei F, Ping X, Hu Y, Nie Y, Zeng Y, Huang G. Main Achievements, Challenges, and Recommendations of Biodiversity Conservation in China. Bulletin of Chinese Academy of Sciences. 2021;36:375–383. doi: 10.16418/j.issn.1000-3045.20210305001. [DOI] [Google Scholar]
  49. Xu J, Xiao Y, Xie G, Wang Y, Lei G. Assessment of the Benefit Diffusion of Windbreak and Sand Fixation Service in National Key Ecological Function areas in China. Aeolian Research. 2021;52:100728. doi: 10.1016/j.aeolia.2021.100728. [DOI] [Google Scholar]
  50. Yang D. On Building the Upper Yangtze River Ecological Barrier. Journal of Sichuan Forestry Science and Technology. 2002 doi: 10.16779/j.cnki.1003-5508.2002.01.001. [DOI] [Google Scholar]
  51. Zhang, J., and B. Fu. 2023. Eco-civilization: A Complementary Pathway Rooted in Theory and Practice for Global Sustainable Development. Ambio 52: 1882–1894. 10.1007/s13280-023-01902-8. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed]
  52. Zhou L, Liu Y. Review and prospect of ecological construction in China. Acta Ecologica Sinica. 2021;41:3306–3314. doi: 10.5846/stxb202001200154. [DOI] [Google Scholar]
  53. Zheng Y, Zhuang G. Systemic Governance of Mountains, Rivers, Forests, Farmlands, Lakes and Grasslands: Theoretical Framework and Approaches. Chinese Journal of Urban and Environmental Studies. 2021;09:2150021. doi: 10.1142/S2345748121500214. [DOI] [Google Scholar]
  54. Zhang J, Xu W, Kong L, Hull V, Xiao Yi, Xiao Yang, Ouyang Z. Strengthening Protected Areas for Giant Panda Habitat and Ecosystem Services. Biological Conservation. 2018;227:1–8. doi: 10.1016/j.biocon.2018.08.016. [DOI] [Google Scholar]
  55. Zhang T, Du Z, Yang J, Yao X, Ou C, Niu B, Yan S. Land Cover Mapping and Ecological Risk Assessment in the Context of Recent Ecological Migration. Remote Sensing. 2021;13:1381. doi: 10.3390/rs13071381. [DOI] [Google Scholar]
  56. Zhang M, Zhang L, He H, Ren X, Lv Y, Niu Z, Chang Q, Xu Q, et al. Improvement of Ecosystem Quality in National Key Ecological Function Zones in China during 2000–2015. Journal of Environmental Management. 2022;324:116406. doi: 10.1016/j.jenvman.2022.116406. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  57. Zhong X, Liu S, Wang X, Zhu W, Li X, Yang L. A Research on the Protection and Construction of the State Ecological Safe Shelter Zone on the Tibet Plateau. Mountain Research. 2006;24:129–136. [Google Scholar]

Articles from Ambio are provided here courtesy of Springer

RESOURCES