Skip to main content
NCBI home page
NIHPA Author Manuscripts logoLink to NIHPA Author Manuscripts
. Author manuscript; available in PMC: 2024 May 30.
Published in final edited form as: Fam Process. 2019 Sep 9;59(3):1293–1307. doi: 10.1111/famp.12486

Psychological Resources, Constructive Conflict Management Behaviors, and Depressive Symptoms: A Dyadic Analysis

SEONHWA LEE *, VICTORIA KING †, KANDAUDA K A S WICKRAMA ‡, CATHERINE WALKER O’NEAL ‡
PMCID: PMC11139021  NIHMSID: NIHMS1987129  PMID: 31497888

Abstract

This study investigated the longitudinal associations between mastery, conflict management behaviors, and depressive symptoms using an actor–partner interdependence model with 371 middle-aged couples over a span of 24 years. Results indicated that for both husbands and wives, individuals who possessed higher levels of mastery generally displayed more constructive conflict management behaviors during marital conflicts in middle years. In turn, individuals with more constructive behaviors averaged fewer depressive symptoms in their later adulthood. A partner effect was also noted, as individuals’ constructive behaviors were linked to their spouse’s depressive symptoms. This finding emphasizes the importance of utilizing a dyadic context to understand intra-individual and inter-individual (or crossover) influences between husbands and wives in enduring marriages. A better understanding of how couples affect each other’s mental health can inform the development and implementation of health promotion interventions and prevention efforts targeting middle-aged couples.

Keywords: Mastery, Conflict Management Behaviors, Depression, Marital Processes

Research has established that marital distress and poor marital quality have detrimental mental health consequences (Kiecolt-Glaser & Newton, 2001; Kiecolt-Glaser & Wilson, 2017). Distressed marriages are commonly characterized by conflictual communication and negative affectivity (Bradbury & Karney, 2004). These negative marital interactions are closely related to marital dissatisfaction, which, in turn, can detrimentally impact spouses’ mental health (Beach, 2014; Whisman, 2001). Also, research emphasizes that the personal resources (i.e., mastery) individuals bring into their marriages influence their marital interactions (Bradbury & Karney, 2004). Furthermore, mastery, the sense of control individuals feel over their own actions, is one of the personal resources that research has identified as affecting individuals’ capability to manage and respond to stressful situations (King, Wickrama, O’Neal, & Lorenz, 2017; Pearlin, 1999). Feelings of mastery correspond with how individuals respond to life stressors and their ability to actively seek solutions to problems (Pearlin, 1999). Individuals’ capacity to manage and adapt to challenging situations ultimately influences the extent to which stress exposure impacts mental health (Thoits, 2010).

Thus, mastery can be useful for resolving marital issues as couples navigate stressors and challenges that often occur in marital relationships. Specifically, mastery may play a significant role in shaping the conflict resolution behaviors of marital couples and reducing the occurrence of stressful marital interactions. However, less research has identified the dyadic processes that may shape these associations over an extended period of time. These long-term processes are particularly important because, as a chronic stressor, continuous stressful marital experiences can result in mental health consequences that unfold over time. Thus, using longitudinal couple data over more than twenty years (from 1991 to 2015), the present study seeks to understand the implications of personal psychological resources, specifically focusing on the sense of mastery, by (1) examining the extent to which mastery influences conflict management behaviors (a marital process) of husbands and wives and (2) identifying the persistent influence of mastery on spouses’ depressive symptoms over time. Additionally, the present study sheds light on the role of psychological resources and marital processes for continuously married couples’ (marriages spanning over almost forty years) mental health as they enter their later adulthood.

The present study also examines the transactional influences between husbands and wives in a dyadic context after taking their contemporaneous dependencies into account because the close nature of marital relationships can result in their experiences being mutually transferred and interrelated. As shown in Figure 1, this study examines the associations between husbands’ and wives’ levels of mastery, constructive conflict management behaviors, and depressive symptoms through an actor–partner interdependence model (APIM; Cook & Kenny, 2005). A unique feature of the APIM model is the simultaneous examination of individuals’ influences on one another (partner effects) as well as inter-individual influences (actor effects) while taking the dependencies between husbands and wives into account. Failing to account for this interdependence can overlook valuable information about partners’ marital functioning (Kenny, Kashy, & Cook, 2006). To our knowledge, little research has taken a long-term view (data over two decades) to examine the psycho-behavioral processes leading to mental health outcomes through marital interactions within a comprehensive dyadic modeling framework in spouses in enduring marriages.

Figure 1.

Figure 1.

Open in a new tab

Conceptual model.

Notably, marital process in middle-aged couples (between 45 and 65 years of age) warrants specific attention given the various changes that typically occur during this time. For instance, due to biological aging processes, many bodily functions gradually decline, and several transitional life events also occur during these years, such as retirement, divorce, and relocation. Related to changes over time, marital contexts typically become more salient with advancing aging (Berg, Johnson, Meegan, & Strough, 2003); however, these transitional life events can lead to changes in marital functioning (Wickrama, O’Neal, & Lorenz, 2013). Moreover, with these aging processes and increasing relational salience, adverse relational effects of stressful life transitions (e.g., constant marital conflicts) have implications for couples’ physical/or mental health over long periods of time.

This study aims to investigate dyadic process and crossover influences over time; that is, we examine the influence of husbands’ and wives’ psychological resource (i.e., mastery) in early middle years on their own and their partner’s conflict management behaviors throughout their middle years, and, consequently, how these behaviors influence both partners’ experiences of depressive symptoms in their later adulthood.

Sense of Mastery and Conflict Management Behaviors

Researchers have conceptualized sense of mastery as a stress buffer serving as a psychological and cognitive resource reflecting an individual’s beliefs about the degree of control that he/she has over life circumstances (Thoits, 2010). This is consistent with the stress process model, which identifies sense of mastery as a critical determinant of how individuals respond to stressful events; that is, mastery determines whether, and to what extent, individuals avoid or cope with the stressors they encounter (Pearlin, 1999). Greater mastery is thought to encourage an active and attentive problem-solving process, most likely leading the individual toward behavioral responses that facilitate a positive outcome, or at least avoid unfavorable outcomes. Thoits (2006) emphasized the role of personal agency in the stress process; in that individuals with strong mastery beliefs are more likely to engage in intellectual and behavioral attempts to solve problems or find alternative ways to manage unavoidable stressful situations. These individuals likely experience lesser depressive symptoms and anxiety (Mirowsky & Ross, 2003).

Additionally, previous research found that individuals who feel more competent to cope with relational problems (i.e., mastery) are likely to use more constructive conflict resolution behaviors and fewer destructive conflict resolution behaviors in their relationships (Schneewind & Gerhard, 2002). Conversely, for individuals with a low level of mastery, their passive attitude toward life outcomes may lead to less engagement in constructive conflict management behaviors in close relationships. Therefore, we posit that husbands and wives with high levels of mastery likely engage in more constructive conflict management behaviors, as they are better equipped to solve problems constructively with their spouses.

Constructive Conflict Management Behaviors and Depressive Symptoms

Constructive conflict management in marital relationships is particularly important given that marital discord is closely related to increased psychological distress and depressive symptoms (Beach, 2014; Kiecolt-Glaser & Wilson, 2017). In fact, frequent marital conflicts and consistent negative reciprocity between spouses across various problems and situations have been cited as a main source of marital distress (Fincham, 2003). Constant marital arguments and interpersonal stressors are a key contributor to individuals’ experiences of emotional distress, which can result in an increased risk of experiencing depressive symptoms (Bolger, DeLongis, Kessler, & Schilling, 1989; O’Neill, Cohen, Tolpin, & Gunthert, 2004).

Furthermore, a single stressful event can lead to a series of additional stressors, or sequences of stressful events, which can proliferate over the life course. In these circumstances, the health consequences of the continuing stressors can be substantial and can continue for extended periods (Pearlin, Schieman, Fazio, & Meersman, 2005). Therefore, we expect that for both husbands and wives, the consistent exchange of poor conflict management behaviors between spouses will increase their depressive symptoms as well as their partner’s symptoms in their later lives through the stress proliferation process.

Transactional Processes: Actor/Partner Effects

Consistent with relational theories (Bakker & Demerouti, 2013; Berscheid & Ammazzalorso, 2001), an individual’s feeling of stress is often transferred to other individuals, and this crossover is especially common between spouses. As spouses typically interact frequently, their behaviors and emotions are generally interrelated, and psychological responses between them are often reciprocally transferred over time (O’Brien, 2005). Research has shown that an individual’s personality and personal resources are strongly associated with his/her marital relationship functioning and relational dynamics (Donnellan, Conger, & Bryant, 2004). For husbands and wives, high levels of positive emotionality are associated not only with their own perceptions of relationship satisfaction but also with those of their spouse, suggesting the existence of transactional processes. Also, individuals with high levels of negative emotionality, or those with spouses reporting high levels of negative emotionality, tended to perceive their relationships as more dissatisfying (Stroud, Durbin, Saigal, & Knobloch-Fedders, 2010).

Sanford (2006) argues that husbands’ and wives’ appraisals of the behaviors and actions of their marital partner play a role in the husband’s/wife’s own behavioral responses. Consistent with this argument, we expect that individuals’ levels of mastery will contribute to how both spouses manage their conflict resolution behaviors. Additionally, the constructive conflict management behaviors of one individual are likely to prime their partner to respond with constructive conflict management behaviors. In this manner, constructive conflict management can positively shape marital interactions, thereby reducing the likelihood that husbands and wives will experience depressive symptoms. The current study addresses these transactional processes by considering actor and partner effects in the associations among mastery, constructive conflict management behaviors, and depressive symptoms in a dyadic analytical framework.

The Direct Effects of Mastery on Depressive Symptoms

The link between sense of mastery and better mental health has been well-documented. Previous research found that individuals who feel less control over circumstances around them are often more depressed, at least in part because low mastery is related to feeling hopeless and as if outcomes are already determined by uncontrollable forces (Mirowsky & Ross, 2003). In comparison, individuals with a strong sense of mastery believe that they can produce desirable outcomes through their behaviors. These individuals are more likely to initiate positive coping and health-promoting behaviors, which may result in better mental health outcomes (Schwarzer, 2014). In contrast, low levels of mastery are associated with poorer self-rated health and more illness episodes, which have mental health consequences (Bandura, 2004; Mirowsky & Ross, 2003). In this study, we expect that husbands’ and wives’ mastery are directly associated with their own and/or their partners’ subsequent mental health (i.e., higher levels of mastery are expected to result in fewer depressive symptoms).

Specific Hypotheses

The purpose of the present study is to investigate the longitudinal associations (early middle years to later adulthood) among individuals’ levels of mastery, marital conflict behaviors, and depressive symptoms in the context of a dyadic process. The specific hypotheses are as follows:

  1. For husbands and wives in their early middle years (1991/1992), mastery will have a direct and negative effect on their depressive symptoms (actor effects) and their partner’s depressive symptoms (partner effects) in later adulthood (2015).

  2. For husbands and wives in their early middle years (1991/1992), mastery will be indirectly and positively associated with their own (actor effects) and their partner’s depressive symptoms (partner effects) in later adulthood (2015) through their own (actor effects) and their partner’s (partner effects) constructive conflict management behaviors in their middle years (1994/2001).

METHOD

The data used to evaluate the hypotheses are from the Iowa Midlife Transitions Project (MTP), a decade-long panel study of rural families from a cluster of eight counties in north central Iowa that closely mirror the economic diversity of the rural Midwest. These families were originally part of the Iowa Youth and Families Project (IYFP) in 1989, 1990, 1991, 1992, and 1994 and then continued to participate in the MTP in 2001 (Conger & Elder, 1994). The overarching goal of the IYFP and subsequent projects with the sample is to understand the impact of economic hardship on the changes in family life including developmental outcomes of children, changes in parent–child relationships, and the psychological well-being of each family member (Conger & Elder, 1994). All procedures were reviewed and approved by the university Institutional Review Board.

The IYFP began in 1989 as a study of rural couples, with two children per couple, at least one of whom was a seventh grader in 1989. The site for the research was determined by the interest in rural economic stress (farm crisis) and well-being. Because there are very few minorities in the rural area studied, all families in the combined sample were White. Families meeting the selection criteria were enumerated through contacts with public and private schools and then randomly selected and recruited into the study, with 78% of the married couples agreeing to participate in the current study (Conger & Elder, 1994). For both projects, trained field interviewers visited the families in their homes. During the visit, a trained interviewer asked each family member to complete a detailed questionnaire about family life, work, finances, friends, and mental and physical health status. Family members completed the questionnaires independently so that they could not see one another’s answers. From the larger study of 484 families, the present study includes data from 371 continuously married husbands and wives (i.e., couples who remained married to the same individual over the period of the study). These 371 couples represent 86% of the original sample of 484 couples.

At the first wave of data collection in 1989, husbands and wives had been married for at least 17 years, and, on average, the families had three children. In 1989, husbands and wives were generally in their early middle years; the average ages of husbands and wives were 40 and 38 years, respectively, with a range from 32 to 57 for husbands and 29 to 53 for wives. Within the sample, 78% of the women were employed, and 96% of the men were employed. Median yearly family income in 1989 was US$33,240 (ranged from US$0 to US$259,000). In terms of occupational status, the men in this sample included craftsmen, foremen, and farmers (38.4%); professionals, managers, owners, and officials (23.8%); operatives and kindred workers (16.6%); sales workers, clerical, service workers, private household workers, and military service (14.4%); laborers (3.3%); and other (3.5%). Nineteen percent of the wives were homemakers. Occupations for the employed women included sales workers, clerical, service workers, and private household workers (46.1%); professionals, managers, owners, and officials (23.7%); operatives and kindred workers (4.2%); craftsmen, foremen, and farmers (2.9%); laborers (0.7%); and other (3.4%).

Most of the original IYFP husbands and wives were interviewed again in the early months of 2001 as part of the MTP. The attrition rate was 11% from 1989 to 2001. As part of an attrition analysis, we identified that those who dropped out of the panel were slightly younger (38.9 vs. 39.9 years of age; t = 2.03, p < .01), had slightly less educational attainment (12.7 vs. 13.5 years of school; t = 4.20, p < .001), and had lower gross family income ($26,631 vs. $36,134; t = 2.76, p < .01) in 1991. We observed no other significant differences, including baseline self-reported health. Detailed information about the MTP and IYFP can be found in Conger and Conger (2002) and Conger and Elder (1994). Figure 2 illustrates the process of IYFP and MTP data collection.

Figure 2.

Figure 2.

Open in a new tab

Flow chart of data collection.

Measures

Mastery

Mastery was measured using the Personal Mastery Scale in 1991 and 1992 (Pearlin, Menaghan, Lieberman, & Mullan, 1981). Husbands and wives were asked to respond to a 5-point scale (1 = strongly agree, 5 = strongly disagree) to statements such as “sometimes I feel that I’m being pushed around in life,” “I have little control over things that happen in my life,” and “what happens to me in the future mostly depends on me.” Responses were coded such that higher scores reflected higher mastery (α = .60 to .71 across years). For each spouse, mastery was assessed as a latent variable comprised of reports from 1991 and 1992.

Constructive conflict management behaviors

In 1994 and 2001, six items from the family problem-solving questionnaire (Conger, 1988) were used to ask each spouse about their spouse’s behaviors during conflict (e.g., How often your partner: “listen[s] to your ideas how to solve the problem?” and “show[s] a real interest in helping solve the problem?”). Responses ranged from 1 (always) to 7 (never) and were coded and averaged so that higher scores reflected more frequent use of constructive conflict management behaviors (α = .82 to .92). For each spouse, mastery was assessed as a latent variable comprised of reports from 1994 and 2001.

Depressive symptoms

Nine items from the SCL90 (Derogatis & Savitz, 1999) were used to capture the self-reported ratings of depressive symptoms from the previous week for husbands and wives in 2015. Husbands and wives were asked to respond to a 5-point scale (1 = not at all, 5 = extremely) to statements such as, “I have thoughts of ending my life,” “feelings of worthlessness,” and “feeling hopeless about the future.” Responses were coded such that higher scores reflected more depressive symptoms (α = .93 and .94 in 2015 for husbands and wives, respectively).

Analyses

A series of models were tested using Mplus 8 (Muthén & Muthén, 1998–2012) within a structural equation modeling (SEM) and actor–partner interdependence modeling (APIM) framework (Kenny et al., 2006). Utilizing an APIM approach allows for the examination of both direct actor effects (e.g., husband-to-husband) and accounts for cross-lag effects or partner effects (e.g., husband-to-wife). The first model examined the actor and partner effects of husbands’ and wives’ mastery (latent variables) on spouses’ depressive symptoms in their later adulthood (2015). Next, spousal reports of individuals’ conflict management behaviors (1994 and 2001) were added into the model to test for indirect effects between mastery and depressive symptoms through conflict management behaviors. Within this model, indirect effects between mastery and depressive symptoms were also assessed.

A range of fit indices were used to evaluate the fit of the models, including the chi-square statistic, the cumulative fit index (CFI), and the root mean square error of approximation (RMSEA). For the chi-square fit statistic, the model is thought to fit the data well when the chi-square divided by the degrees of freedom is below 3.0 (McIver & Carmines, 1981). The model is believed to fit the data well when the CFI value is near or greater than .95 and the RMSEA value is near or less than .06 (Hu & Bentler, 1999).

RESULTS

Preliminary Analyses

Table 1 depicts the correlations, means, and standard deviations of the variables of interest in this study. The means of the study variables suggest that husbands’ reports of mastery and conflict management behaviors remained fairly stable over time. Wives reported relatively stable constructive conflict management behaviors. However, the descriptive statistics suggest that wives experienced a slight increase in mastery between 1991 and 1992. Both husbands and wives generally reported low to moderate feelings of depressive symptoms. Husbands’ and wives’ mastery were correlated with one another in 1991 and 1992, p < .001, as were husbands’ and wives’ constructive conflict management behaviors in 1994 and 2001, p < .001. Additionally, husbands’ and wives’ depressive symptoms were correlated in 2015, p < .001. Husbands’ and wives’ constructive conflict management behaviors were generally correlated with husbands’ and wives’ mastery, p < .001. Lastly, husbands’ and wives’ depressive symptoms in 2015 were correlated with their mastery scores, p < .05.

Table 1.

Correlations, Means, and Standard Deviations of Study Variables

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
1. Husbands’ mastery 1991 —
2. Husbands’ mastery 1992 .59** —
3. Wives’ mastery 1991 .24** .21** —
4. Wives’ mastery 1992 .22** .23** .58** —
5. Husbands’ conflict management behaviors 1994 .22** .23** .28** .21** —
6. Husbands’ conflict management behaviors 2001 .18** .21** .24** .13 .61** —
7. Wives’ conflict management behaviors 1994 .13** .21** .39** .31** .31** .29** —
8. Wives’ conflict management behaviors 2001 .13** .21** .37** .27** .18** .34** .57** —
9. Husbands’ depressive symptoms 2015 −.42** −.39** −.23** −.21** −.17** −.14* −.10 −.11 —
10. Wives’ depressive symptoms 2015 −.14** −.19** −.31** −.42** −.14** −.12* −.16* −.25** .33** —
M 1.96 1.91 2.00 2.70 2.45 2.42 2.41 2.46 1.68 1.68
SD .89 .86 .90 .86 .40 .40 .45 .45 .76 .77
Open in a new tab
**

p < .001.

*

p < .01.

Testing the Hypothesized Model

Model 1. Direct effects of husbands’ and wives’ mastery on depressive symptoms

The SEM with an APIM framework examined husbands’ and wives’ reports of mastery, constructive conflict management behaviors, and depressive symptoms. We initially began by testing the effects of husbands’ and wives’ mastery (latent construct with values from 1991 and 1992) on subsequent depressive symptoms in 2015.

Within this tested model, the actor effects between husbands’ and wives’ mastery and their own depressive symptoms in later adulthood (2015) were statistically significant (β = −0.64, p < .001 and β = −0.78, p < .001, respectively). However, the partner effects for mastery and depressive symptoms were not statistically significant, indicating that over 24 years, mastery was implicated in lower levels of depressive symptoms within individuals, but mastery was not related to their partner’s symptoms. Additionally, both husbands’ and wives’ mastery and depressive symptoms were positively correlated, r = .08, p < .001. These results partially supported our first hypothesis. The model showed excellent fit to the data with a χ2 (df) = 1.25(5), p = .94, CFI = 1.00, TLI = 1.00, RMSEA = 0.00, and SRMR = 0.01.

Model 2. Mastery, conflict management behaviors, and depressive symptoms

The next model incorporated spousal reports of constructive conflict management behaviors modeled as latent variables for husbands and wives specifically focusing on their middle years (for each partner incorporating responses from 1994 and 2001). We assessed the indirect effects of constructive conflict management behaviors (middle years) between husbands’ and wives’ mastery (early middle years) and subsequent depressive symptoms (later adulthood). The results are shown in Figure 3.

Figure 3.

Figure 3.

Open in a new tab

Actor and partner effects of individual mastery, spousal constructive conflict management behaviors, and depressive symptoms. Unstandardized values reported. +p < . 05, *p < .01, **p < .001.

Results indicated that there were significant actor effects for husbands’ and wives’ mastery on their constructive conflict management behaviors, as reported by their partners (β = 7.08, p < .001 and β = 4.68, p < .01, for husbands and wives, respectively). Partner effects between mastery and constructive conflict management behaviors were not statistically significant. Thus, when husbands reported more mastery in their early middle years (1991 and 1992), their spouses generally reported that they engaged in more constructive conflict management behaviors in their middle years (1994 and 2001). The same pattern was noted for wives’ mastery with higher levels of mastery implicated in their spouses’ reports of more constructive conflict management behaviors in middle years.

Additionally, significant actor effects were present for constructive conflict management behaviors on subsequent depressive symptoms for husbands and wives in later adulthood (2015) (β = −0.95, p < .001 and β = −0.73, p < .001, respectively). Significant partner effects were also present; wives who reported that husbands engaging in constructive conflict management behaviors generally reported fewer depressive symptoms (β = −0.31, p < .05), and husbands who reported that wives engaged in effective conflict management behaviors generally reported fewer subsequent depressive symptoms (β = −0.32, p < .05).

Lastly, husbands’ and wives’ mastery and spouse-reported constructive conflict management behaviors were significantly correlated, r = 0.04, p < .01, but husbands’ and wives’ depressive symptoms were not significantly correlated. These results partially supported the two hypotheses. This model demonstrated good model fit to the data, χ2 (df) = 68.97(23), p < .001, CFI = 0.92, TLI = 0.85, RMSEA = 0.06, SRMR = 0.06.

We assessed for measurement invariance over time. When assessing the chi-square difference between a fully unconstrained and constrained model (with equality constraints for loadings across two time points including both husbands and wives reports mastery in 1991 and 1992 in a single model), the two models showed no difference in fit, Δ χ2 (df) = 0.53(1), p < .001. Similarly, when assessing the chi-square difference between fully unconstrained and constrained models containing the two time points of husbands’ and wives’ reports of constructive conflict management behavior in 1994 and 2001, there was not a significant difference in fit, Δ χ2 (df) = 0.33(1), p < .001. These findings indicated temporal invariance in these measures for both husbands and wives.

Test of Indirect Effects

Next, sobel tests of indirect effects were employed in the second model to assess the statistical significance of indirect effects between husbands’ and wives’ mastery and depressive symptoms through constructive conflict management behaviors. Results suggest that husbands’ mastery was indirectly related to husbands’ depressive symptoms through husbands’ constructive conflict management behaviors (Indirect Effect (I.E.) = −3.43, p < .05). Additionally, husbands’ mastery was indirectly related to wives’ depressive symptoms in later adulthood through husbands’ constructive conflict management behaviors in middle years (I.E. = −2.54, p < .05). Thus, mastery in early middle years may be indirectly related to depressive symptoms in later adulthood through couples’ conflict management behaviors, which supports our second hypothesis.

Test of Chi-Square Difference

Utilizing the Satorra Bentler scaled chi-square difference test, analyses revealed that there was a statistically significant difference between Model 1, testing the direct effects between mastery and depressive symptoms, and Model 2, which included the indirect effect of conflict management behaviors. Model fit was significantly improved from Model 1 to Model 2 (Δ χ2 (df) = 67.43(22), p < .001).

DISCUSSION

In the present study, we conceptualized the associations between mastery, constructive conflict management behaviors, and depressive symptoms through an actor–partner interdependence model (APIM; Cook & Kenny, 2005) over long periods of time. We hypothesized that sense of mastery in the early middle years would be positively related to constructive conflict management behaviors in middle years, and, in turn, those with more positive conflict management behaviors would experience fewer depressive symptoms in later adulthood. Moreover, we expected actor and partner effects in these associations between mastery, constructive conflict management behaviors, and depressive symptoms.

Our findings partially supported the hypotheses. Consistent with previous research (e.g., Mirowsky & Ross, 2003), we found that for both husbands and wives, sense of mastery in their early middle years (1991 and 1992) was associated with their own depressive symptoms in their later years (2015). Due to the longitudinal nature of the current study with an extensive follow-up period (24 years), findings indicate that the sense of mastery is an important psychological resource for their well-being over the life course. Moreover, the current analyses suggest conflict management behaviors are one mechanism responsible for this link. However, the direct effects of mastery on depressive symptoms were reduced when marital interactions (i.e., constructive conflict management behaviors) were considered. Additionally, the results showed that husbands’ mastery influenced not only their own depressive symptoms but also their partners’ symptoms through their use of more constructive conflict management behaviors in middle years.

Furthermore, when testing the full model (Figure 2), the results suggested that for both husbands and wives, individuals with more mastery (in their early middle years; 1991 and 1992) generally displayed more constructive conflict management behaviors toward their partners in their middle years (1994 and 2001). These findings are consistent with the stress process model, which outlines how individuals with higher mastery are more likely to work toward positive outcomes and are better equipped to handle conflicts when they arise (Pearlin, 1999; Thoits, 2006). Contrary to expectations, individuals’ mastery in early middle years did not influence their partners’ conflict management behaviors in middle years, but the significant association between husbands’ and wives’ constructive conflict management suggests that mastery does play an important role in the interactions between husbands and wives. Thus, when one spouse used more constructive behaviors to manage conflicts, his/her partner was likely to display similar behaviors. In other words, when conflicts arise, an individual who possesses higher levels of mastery behaves toward his/her partner in more constructive ways. Observing those constructive behaviors, the partner is likely to respond in a similar manner, creating constructive interactions between the couple members. These results provide insight on an important aspect of reciprocal processes in couples over time, and future research is needed to further explore the possible psycho-behavioral mechanisms and crossover effects of personal psychological resources on behaviors in the context of couple relationships especially in enduring marriages.

Additionally, individuals using more constructive conflict management behaviors (as reported by spouse) in their middle years (1994 and 2001) reported fewer depressive symptoms in their later adulthood (2015). Beyond this actor effect, when husbands displayed constructive conflict management behaviors in middle years (1994 and 2001), wives, on average, subsequently reported fewer depressive symptoms in later adulthood (2015). Marital relationships that are categorized as high in discord have substantial negative emotional consequences, including an increased likelihood of experiencing depressive symptoms (Beach, 2014; Kiecolt-Glaser & Wilson, 2017; Whisman, 2001). Furthermore, the occurrence of stress proliferation can include the experience of long-term and chronic stressors that often have negative physical and mental health consequences (Pearlin et al., 2005). The effect of these stressors can be experienced not only by the individual but can also cross over into the lives of those close to the individual, such as their spouse. This crossover effect also provides support for the use of an APIM framework with a family system perspective as it emphasizes the reciprocal processes between spouses, whereby one partner’s feelings and behaviors influence the other partner’s feelings and behaviors (Kashy & Kenny, 2000), allowing for reduced mental health risk.

When considering the indirect effects, the results revealed two significant pathways. One path suggested that husbands’ mastery was related to their own depressive symptoms through their constructive conflict management behaviors (as reported by wives). Additionally, husbands’ mastery was indirectly related to wives’ depressive symptoms through husbands’ constructive conflict management behaviors (as reported by wives). These findings further highlight the reciprocal nature of spousal relationships. Spouses interact frequently with one another, resulting in dependencies between their behaviors and emotions. These dependencies can also elicit reciprocal transferences in their psychological responses over time.

The results of this investigation have implications for the study of individual- and couple-level processes and the experience of depressive symptoms. First, the present findings suggest that sense of mastery is a critical personal resource with important consequences for subsequent constructive conflict management behaviors and depressive symptoms. There is a growing awareness of the extent to which individuals’ confidence regarding their abilities to control and change their immediate environments impacts their well-being (Pudrovska, Schieman, Pearlin, & Nguyen, 2005). Individuals with greater personal control are more likely to engage in intellectual and behavioral attempts to successfully solve problems, including seeking out social support when needed, which, in turn, can reduce depressive symptoms. The present findings suggest that it may be particularly important to focus on ways to boost and improve individual feelings of mastery.

Second, these findings highlight the importance of considering multiple mechanisms and pathways through which individuals can experience depressive symptoms, in addition to how couple-level contexts might influence these mechanisms. Investigations limited to mastery and depressive symptoms or constructive conflict management behaviors and depressive symptoms can result in an incomplete representation of how these variables interact with one another. The present findings indicate that mastery directly influenced depressive symptom experience in later adulthood. Also, constructive conflict management behaviors were important mechanisms connecting perceived mastery in early middle years (1991 and 1992) to depressive symptoms experienced decades later in later adulthood (2015). This process is consistent with literature suggesting that individuals with higher levels of mastery are better equipped to handle stressors and more effectively manage conflicts that arise, thus leading individuals to experience more self-worth, which can combat the experience of depressive symptoms.

An important direction for future research is an expansion of research noting the extent to which spouses, and more generally other close relationships (i.e., family or friends), contribute to the experience of depressive symptoms. It is important to consider not only individual characteristics that can leave an individual at an increased risk for depressive symptoms but also the extent to which relationship processes have mental health consequences. This study was an investigation of actor and partner effects in continuously married and aging adults, and the contributions of their mastery and constructive conflict behaviors on subsequent depressive symptoms. The findings highlighted that both individual- and couple-level processes had direct and indirect effects on one’s own experience of depressive symptoms, as well as the effects on one’s partner’s experience of depressive symptoms.

There are several limitations of the present study that should be noted. One limitation is that this study was comprised only of European-American individuals who lived in rural Iowa as there are few minority families in the study area. Replication of these analyses with a more diverse population, including urban families, couples with different social backgrounds and jobs, and couples in different stages of life, would increase the generalizability of the findings. Future samples also should include greater variation in length of marriage. A second limitation is the relatively low reliability, as measured by Cronbach’s α, of the established scale of mastery completed by husbands and wives. This measure was chosen for this investigation due to the nature in which it assesses individuals’ feelings of control over the environment and ability to manage stressful situations (King et al., 2017; Wickrama, Surjadi, Lorenz, & Elder, 2008). Other studies have utilized this measure of mastery and achieved higher reliability levels (Bengtsson-Tops, 2004; Eklund, Erlandsson, & Hagell, 2012; Hobfoll, Jackson, Hobfoll, Pierce, & Young, 2002), indicating that perhaps this particular measure did not fit our sample as well as others. A third limitation is that study participants demonstrated, on average, low to mild depressive symptoms over the course of the study. Future research should investigate these processes with samples exhibiting clinical levels of depressive symptoms and should utilize additional types of reporting beyond self-reported depression. Despite the relatively low levels of depressive symptoms in the present sample, the results provide evidence that individual- and couple-level processes (i.e., mastery and constructive conflict management behaviors) are important contributors to individuals’ experience of depressive symptoms.

Results from this study demonstrate that both individual- and couple-level processes have implications for subsequent depressive symptom experience. Specifically, husbands and wives with higher levels of mastery generally display more constructive conflict management behaviors, which can reduce their depressive symptoms later in life. Additionally, when spouses have more constructive conflict management behaviors, this may impact the depressive symptoms of both partners. Recognizing this reciprocal process and its effect on couples’ mental health, intervention/prevention programs that help couples develop communication skills and utilize strategies to break, or alter, the ongoing cycles of negative interactions may be helpful. Implementation of these skills to manage conflicts or disagreement may allow couples to interrupt patterns of negative reciprocal interactions and change behaviors in more neutral and positive ways, which can lead to fewer marital conflicts and overall reduced marital stress for couples.

Acknowledgments

This research is currently supported by a grant from the National Institute on Aging [AG043599, Kandauda K. A. S. Wickrama, PI]. The content is solely the responsibility of the authors and does not necessarily represent the official views of the funding agencies. Support for earlier years of the study also came from multiple sources, including the National Institute of Mental Health [MH00567, MH19734, MH43270, MH59355, MH62989, MH48165, MH051361], the National Institute on Drug Abuse [DA05347], the National Institute of Child Health and Human Development [HD027724, HD051746, HD047573, HD064687], the Bureau of Maternal and Child Health [MCJ-109572], and the MacArthur Foundation Research Network on Successful Adolescent Development Among Youth in High-Risk Settings. AG043599—NIA—Couple Relationships and Health during Transition to Later Adulthood. Support for this publication was also provided by grant number T32HP30037 from the Health Resources and Services Administration (HRSA).

Footnotes

No potential conflict of interest was reported by the authors.

REFERENCES

  1. Bakker AB, & Demerouti E (2013). The spillover-crossover model. In Grzywacz JG & Demerouti E (Eds.), New frontiers in work and family (pp. 54–70). New York: Psychology Press. [Google Scholar]
  2. Bandura A (2004). Health promotion by social cognitive means. Health Education and Behavior, 31(2), 143–164. 10.1177/1090198104263660. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  3. Beach S (2014). The couple and family discord model of depression: Updates and future directions. In Agnew CR & South SC (Eds.), Interpersonal relationships and health: Social and clinical psychological mechanisms (pp. 133–155). New York: Oxford University Press. [Google Scholar]
  4. Bengtsson-Tops A (2004). Mastery in patients with schizophrenia living in the community: Relationship to sociodemographic and clinical characteristics, needs for care and support, and social network. Journal of Psychiatric and Mental Health Nursing, 11(3), 298–304. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  5. Berg CA, Johnson MM, Meegan SP, & Strough J (2003). Collaborative problem-solving interactions in young and old married couples. Discourse Processes, 35(1), 33–58. [Google Scholar]
  6. Berscheid E, & Ammazzalorso H (2001). Emotional experience in close relationships. In Fletcher GJ& Clark MS (Eds.), Blackwell handbook of social psychology: Interpersonal process (pp. 308–330). Malden, MA: Blackwell. [Google Scholar]
  7. Bolger N, DeLongis A, Kessler RC, & Schilling EA (1989). Effects of daily stress on negative mood. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 57(5), 808–818. 10.1037/0022-3514.57.5.808. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  8. Bradbury TN, & Karney BR (2004). Understanding and altering the longitudinal course of marriage. Journal of Marriage and Family, 66(4), 862–879. 10.1111/j.0022-2445.2004.00059.x. [DOI] [Google Scholar]
  9. Conger RD (1988). Iowa youth and families project (IYFP). Washington, DC: National Institute of Mental Health. [Google Scholar]
  10. Conger RD, & Conger KJ (2002). Resilience in Midwestern families: Selected findings from the first decade of a prospective, longitudinal study. Journal of Marriage and Family, 64(2), 361–373. [Google Scholar]
  11. Conger RD, & Elder GH Jr (1994). Families in troubled times: Adapting to change in rural America. Social institutions and social change. Hawthorne, NY: Aldine de Gruyter. [Google Scholar]
  12. Cook WL, & Kenny DA (2005). The actor-partner interdependence model: A model of bidirectional effects in developmental studies. International Journal of Behavioral Development, 29(2), 101–109. 10.1080/01650250444000405. [DOI] [Google Scholar]
  13. Derogatis LR, & Savitz KL (1999). The SCL-90-R, brief symptom inventory, and matching clinical rating scales. In Maruish ME (Ed.), The use of psychological testing for treatment planning and outcomes assessment (pp. 679–724). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates Publishers. [Google Scholar]
  14. Donnellan MB, Conger RD, & Bryant CM (2004). The Big Five and enduring marriages. Journal of Research in Personality, 38(5), 481–504. 10.1016/j.jrp.2004.01.001. [DOI] [Google Scholar]
  15. Eklund M, Erlandsson LK, & Hagell P (2012). Psychometric properties of a Swedish version of the Pearlin Mastery Scale in people with mental illness and healthy people. Nordic Journal of Psychiatry, 66(6), 380–388. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  16. Fincham FD (2003). Marital conflict: Correlates, structure, and context. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 12(1), 23–27. [Google Scholar]
  17. Hobfoll SE, Jackson A, Hobfoll I, Pierce CA, & Young S (2002). The impact of communal-mastery versus self-mastery on emotional outcomes during stressful conditions: A prospective study of Native American women. American Journal of Community Psychology, 30(6), 853–871. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  18. Hu LT, & Bentler PM (1999). Cutoff criteria for fit indexes in covariance structure analysis: Conventional criteria versus new alternatives. Structural Equation Modeling: A Multidisciplinary Journal, 6(1), 1–55. 10.1080/10705519909540118. [DOI] [Google Scholar]
  19. Kashy DA, & Kenny DA (2000). The analysis of data from dyads and groups. In Reis HT & Judd CM (Eds.), Handbook of research methods in social and personality psychology (pp. 451–477). New York: Cambridge University Press. [Google Scholar]
  20. Kenny DA, Kashy DA, & Cook WL (2006). Dyadic data analysis. New York: Guilford Press. [Google Scholar]
  21. Kiecolt-Glaser JK, & Newton TL (2001). Marriage and health: His and hers. Psychological Bulletin, 127(4), 472. 10.1037/0033-2009.127.4.472. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  22. Kiecolt-Glaser JK, & Wilson SJ (2017). Lovesick: How couples’ relationships influence health. Annual Review of Clinical Psychology, 13, 421–443. 10.1146/annurev-clinpsy-032816-045111. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  23. King V, Wickrama KAS, O’Neal CW, & Lorenz FO (2017). Family hostility and depressive symptoms in middle-aged couples: Moderating effect of marital integration. Journal of Family Psychology, 31(6), 765–774. 10.1037/fam0000306. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  24. McIver J, & Carmines EG (1981). Quantitative applications in the social sciences: Unidimensional scaling. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications, Inc. 10.4135/9781412986441. [DOI] [Google Scholar]
  25. Mirowsky J, & Ross CE (2003). Social causes of psychological distress. New York: Taylor & Francis. [Google Scholar]
  26. Muthén LK, & Muthén BO (1998–2012). Mplus user’s guide (7th ed.). Los Angeles, CA: Muthén & Muthén. [Google Scholar]
  27. O’Brien M (2005). Studying individual and family development: Linking theory and research. Journal of Marriage and Family, 67(4), 880–890. 10.1111/j.1741-3737.2005.00181.x. [DOI] [Google Scholar]
  28. O’Neill SC, Cohen LH, Tolpin LH, & Gunthert KC (2004). Affective reactivity to daily interpersonal stressors as a prospective predictor of depressive symptoms. Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 23(2), 172–194. [Google Scholar]
  29. Pearlin LI (1999). Stress and mental health: A conceptual overview. In Horwitz AV & Scheid TL (Eds.), A handbook for the study of mental health: Social contexts, theories, and systems (pp. 161–175). New York: Cambridge University Press. [Google Scholar]
  30. Pearlin LI, Menaghan EG, Lieberman MA, & Mullan JT (1981). The stress process. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 22(4), 337–356. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  31. Pearlin LI, Schieman S, Fazio EM, & Meersman SC (2005). Stress, health, and the life course: Some conceptual perspectives. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 46(2), 205–219. 10.1177/002214650504600206. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  32. Pudrovska T, Schieman S, Pearlin LI, & Nguyen K (2005). The sense of mastery as a mediator and moderator in the association between economic hardship and health in late life. Journal of Aging and Health, 17(5), 634–660. 10.1177/0898264305279874. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  33. Sanford K (2006). Communication during marital conflict: When couples alter their appraisal, they change their behavior. Journal of Family Psychology, 20(2), 256. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  34. Schneewind KA, & Gerhard AK (2002). Relationship personality, conflict resolution, and marital satisfaction in the first 5 years of marriage. Family Relations, 51(1), 63–71. 10.1111/j.1741-3729.2002.00063.x. [DOI] [Google Scholar]
  35. Schwarzer R (2014). Self-efficacy: Thought control of action. New York: Taylor & Francis. [Google Scholar]
  36. Stroud CB, Durbin CE, Saigal SD, & Knobloch-Fedders LM (2010). Normal and abnormal personality traits are associated with marital satisfaction for both men and women: An actor–partner interdependence model analysis. Journal of Research in Personality, 44(4), 466–477. 10.1016/j.jrp.2010.05.011. [DOI] [Google Scholar]
  37. Thoits PA (2006). Personal agency in the stress process. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 47(4), 309–323. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  38. Thoits PA (2010). Stress and health: Major findings and policy implications. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 51(1), S41–S53. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  39. Whisman MA (2001). The association between depression and marital dissatisfaction. In Beach SRH (Ed.), Marital and family processes in depression: A scientific foundation for clinical practice (pp. 3–24). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association. [Google Scholar]
  40. Wickrama KAS, O’Neal CW, & Lorenz FO (2013). Marital functioning from middle to later years: A life course–stress process framework. Journal of Family Theory and Review, 5(1), 15–34. [Google Scholar]
  41. Wickrama KAS, Surjadi FF, Lorenz FO, & Elder GH (2008). The influence of work control trajectories on men’s mental and physical health during the middle years: Mediational role of personal control. The Journals of Gerontology Series B: Psychological Sciences and Social Sciences, 63(3), S135–S145. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

RESOURCES