Skip to main content
NCBI home page
NIHPA Author Manuscripts logoLink to NIHPA Author Manuscripts
. Author manuscript; available in PMC: 2025 Jul 1.
Published in final edited form as: J Adolesc. 2024 Mar 25;96(5):1022–1033. doi: 10.1002/jad.12313

Profiles of Latinx Cultural Orientation among Adolescents: Associations with Internalizing Symptoms and Moderation by Ethnic-Racial Discrimination

Miriam Ortiz 1, Fantasy T Lozada 2, Oswaldo Moreno 2, Chelsea D Williams 2, Brendesha M Tynes 3
PMCID: PMC11223978  NIHMSID: NIHMS1973082  PMID: 38528323

Abstract

The objectives of the current study were the following: (1) to explore multidimensional profiles of Latinx cultural orientation using Spanish language use, familismo, and ethnic-racial identity (ERI) affirmation among Latinx adolescents, (2) to test how Latinx cultural orientation profiles were associated with adolescents’ internalizing symptoms (i.e., depressive symptoms and anxiety symptoms), and (3) to test whether associations between profiles and internalizing symptoms were moderated by adolescents’ ethnic-racial discrimination experiences. The study was conducted among a sample of 204 Latinx adolescents (52.4% female; Mage=14.35, SDage=1.75). Latent profile analysis indicated four profiles of Latinx cultural orientation: Higher Affirmation and Lower Spanish (HALS), Higher Spanish (HS), Lower Familismo and Affirmation (LFA), and Higher Familismo/Lower Spanish and Affirmation (HFLSA). Latinx adolescents who reported lower levels on more than one Latinx cultural orientation dimension (e.g. LFA or HFSLA) also reported worse health when compared to adolescents who reported higher levels of more than one Latinx cultural orientation dimension (e.g., HSA). The associations between Latinx cultural orientation profiles and internalizing symptoms were not moderated by adolescents’ ethnic-racial discrimination. Findings provide researchers and practitioners with an understanding of the various ways in which Latinx adolescents remain connected to their Latinx culture and implications for their outcomes.

Keywords: cultural orientation, anxiety, depression, ethnic discrimination/racial discrimination, Latinx/Latino/Hispanic adolescents

One third of the Latinx population is under 18, making this group the youngest major ethnic group in the United States (US; Pew Research Center, 2016). Latinx adolescents’ risk for developing an internalized disorder (i.e., anxiety, withdrawal, depression and somatic complaints directed toward the self; Kann et al., 2018) is twice as high in comparison to their European American counterparts (McLaughlin et al., 2007). Additionally, Latinx adolescents report higher levels of depressive symptoms than African American and Asian American youth (Mikolajczyk et al., 2007). Such internalizing symptoms are associated with later engagement in more risky behaviors like alcohol and other drug use (Basáñez et al., 2013; Berger Cardoso et al., 2018). The risk for poorer mental health is particularly prominent when Latinx adolescents experience stressful situations (e.g. ethnic-racial discrimination, immigration; Smokowski et al., 2014). Additionally, Latinx culture emphasizes obedience, respect for authority figures, and family harmony, which may contribute to Latinx adolescents’ higher internalization when stressors arise (Lorenzo-Blanco & Unger, 2015). Thus, engagement with Latinx culture may impact the interpretation and expressivity of Latinx adolescents’ behavior, especially around mental health. More studies, however, are needed to empirically support culturally-related factors on mental health among Latinx adolescents.

One such culturally-related factor that may be associated with mental health is one’s Latinx cultural orientation (i.e., maintaining one’s cultural heritage in the face of exposure to a receiving country’s culture or a “mainstream” culture; Berry, 1980; Schwartz et al., 2010). The conceptualization of Latinx cultural orientation (also referred to as enculturation) has historically been examined through a unidimensional lens (i.e., examining cultural orientation as ranging from completely acculturated to not acculturated, Meca et al., 2018; Schwartz et al., 2010). As recommended by scholars, more attention is needed to understand Latinx cultural orientation through a multidimensional framework (i.e., examining different dimensions that include cultural behaviors, values, beliefs; Schwartz et al., 2010; Yoon et al., 2011). Thus, in the current study, we examine multidimensional profiles of adolescents’ Latinx cultural orientation, which included Spanish language use, cultural values of familismo (familism), and ethnic-racial identity (ERI) affirmation, and the association of these profiles to self-reported depressive and anxiety symptoms among Latinx adolescents. Additionally, we examine ethnic-racial discrimination as a moderator.

Theoretical frameworks that are useful for understanding how Latinx cultural orientation and ethnic-racial discrimination may interact to inform adolescents’ internalizing symptoms is risk and resilience theory (Luthar et al., 2000) and the integrative model for the study of developmental competencies in minority children (García Coll et al., 1996). Broadly, risk and resilience theory (Luthar et al., 2000) posits that individuals’ outcomes (e.g., internalizing symptoms) are informed by positive factors that confer resilience and negative factors that confer risk. The integrative model (García Coll et al., 1996) posits that among ethnically and racially minoritized youth specifically, risk and resilience factors that result from social position variables (e.g., race and ethnicity) may be cultural, which are expected to inform development. It is further proposed that individuals’ development is an interaction between both individual cultural characteristics and contextual cultural characteristics (García Coll et al., 1996). Accordingly, Latinx cultural orientation is an individual cultural resilience factor that informs less internalizing symptoms, while ethnic-racial discrimination is a contextual cultural risk moderator that interacts with adolescents’ Latinx cultural orientation to inform greater internalizing symptoms.

Latinx Cultural Orientation: A Multidimensional Process

Latinx cultural orientation is the process by which one retains and is involved with their cultural heritage in the face of a dominant, “mainstream” culture (Berry, 1980; Schwartz et al., 2010). For instance, Latinx cultural orientation for adolescents in the US includes the process by which they maintain a cultural connection with their and/or their parents’ country of origin (e.g., Mexico, El Salvador, Puerto Rico, Dominican Republic, etc.) in the face of being exposed to mainstream US American culture. Scholars have proposed cultural orientation processes involve multiple dimensions (Capielo Rosario et al., 2019). Among Florida-residing Puerto Ricans and island-residing Puerto Ricans, Capielo Rosario and colleagues (2019) focused on multiple dimensions involved in cultural orientation, including language use behavior (English and Spanish), cultural values (e.g., European American cultural values and Puerto Rican cultural values) and identity (e.g., US American identity and Puerto Rican ERI). Empirical support was found for a multidimensional, six-factor model that included simultaneous European American cultural orientation and Puerto Rican cultural orientation that included all three indicators of language use behaviors, cultural values, and ERI (Capielo Rosario et al., 2019).

Although the simultaneous, multidimensional consideration of both mainstream and Latinx cultural orientations may provide a thorough conception of the cultural acquisition and retention processes, to date the majority of research in this area has focused on mainstream, acculturation processes, and less on Latinx cultural orientation processes. Literature on risk and resilience and positive youth development among Latinx youth specifically emphasize the promotive and protective effects of cultural assets that are oriented toward the youth’s heritage culture (Cavanaugh et al., 2018). Thus, understanding patterns of Latinx cultural orientation that involve multiple dimensions, such as Spanish language use, cultural values, and ERI, is an important area of investigation.

Language use has consistently been identified as a key indicator for cultural orientation processes (Guarnaccia et al., 2007; Ortega et al., 2000). Regarding Latinx cultural orientation, Spanish language use is associated with social and health outcomes among recently arrived Latinxs in the US (Guarnaccia et al., 2007). In addition to Spanish language use, orientation to specific Latinx cultural values promote better outcomes with regard to internalizing symptoms among Latinx adolescents (Livas Stein et al., 2015; Telzer et al., Fuligni, 2015). One specific cultural value, familismo (familism) which refers to the value of family as the primary source of social support (Romero & Ruiz, 2007; Smith-Morris et al., 2013), is associated with lower rates of internalizing symptoms (Cupito et al., 2015; Livas Stein et al., 2015; Telzer et al., 2015). Finally, ERI affirmation (i.e., one’s positive attitudes toward their own ethnic-racial group; Umaña-Taylor et al., 2004), is particularly important in promoting a lower incidence of depressive and anxiety symptoms among Latinx adolescents (Brittian et al., 2015; Zeiders et al., 2013). Although previous research has separately demonstrated how each Spanish language use, familismo, and ERI affirmation are individually associated with positive mental health outcomes among Latinx adolescents, there is little understanding or recognition in the literature of the extent to which the combination or synergy of Latinx cultural orientation behaviors, values, and identity may vary among Latinx youth. Such an approach highlights the heterogeneity of experience among Latinx youth and may promote a typology approach to Latinx cultural orientation that may be useful for practitioners who work with Latinx youth. For instance, it has been theorized that adolescents with a more Latinx cultural orientation, such as those who value familismo and report high ERI affirmation may be at lower risk for depression and anxiety (Umaña-Taylor et al., 2011), as well as comorbid psychiatric conditions (Cupito et al., 2015; Marquez & Ramirez Garcia, 2013). Person-centered or typology approaches have been previously used in examining patterns of acculturation (e.g., Christophe et al., 2020; Meca et al., 2018; Salas-Wright et al., 2015). For example, Christophe and colleagues (2020) used a person-centered approach to examine profiles of American (i.e., acculturation) and ethnic–racial identity and its relationship with American (i.e., acculturation) and Latinx cultural orientations, values, and socialization among 172 Latinx mother–youth dyads. However, limited research has applied person-centered approaches to understanding specifically multidimensional aspects of Latinx cultural orientation among Latinx adolescents. Utilizing a person-centered approach allows for a better understanding of the multidimensional aspects of Latinx cultural orientation (i.e., Spanish language use, familismo, and ERI affirmation), while also examining the internalizing symptoms associated with the Latinx adolescent cultural orientation. To address this gap, the current study will include a profile analysis of Spanish language use, familismo, and ERI affirmation as a multidimensional test of Latinx cultural orientation.

Latinx Cultural Orientation and Adolescents’ Internalizing Symptoms

Various studies shed light on the high prevalence of internalizing symptoms specific to depression and anxiety among Latinx adolescents. For example, McLaughlin and colleagues (2007) found that Latinx adolescents reported higher levels of anxiety when compared to their non-Latinx counterparts among a sample of 610 adolescents in the 6–8 grade levels. Likewise, in a sample of 281 first generation Latinx immigrant adolescents, Potochnick and Perreira (2010) found that the risk for anxiety and mood disorders for Latinx adolescents was higher (28.8%) when compared to the general population of adolescents (13–20%). More studies, however, are needed to test the effect of multidimensional cultural factors on internalizing symptoms among Latinx adolescents.

Studies suggest that higher levels of Latinx cultural orientation are associated with a lower incidence of depression and anxiety among Latinx adolescents (Cespedes & Huey, 2008; McLaughlin et al., 2007; Perez et al., 2011). Adolescence is a critical transitional period in development (Park et al., 2019), in which individuals engage more with the meaning of their cultural background one’s culture and ethnic group (Williams et al., 2020). Engagement with one’s ethnicity likely provides a sense of belonging among Latinx adolescents at a time when social stressors and physical changes may put adolescents at risk for developing internalizing symptoms. Previous research has noted that greater engagement with one’s ethnic group is associated with positive adjustment for Latinx youth during adolescence (Cavanaugh et al., 2018). Additionally, Latinx cultural values such as familismo that emphasize obedience, respect for authority figures, and family harmony may create norms for more inward emotional processing in an attempt to maintain familial connection and harmony. For instance, previous work notes associations between familismo and internal emotion-related processes such as reappraisal (Davis et al., 2018). Yet, there tends to be stigma around mental health issues, such that internalizing symptoms may be seen as a sign of weakness (Valera et al., 2007). Thus, although engaging in internalizing behaviors may on the surface appear to be consistent with Latinx cultural norms, any perceived deficit in the ability to handle emotions and maintain one’s mental health is viewed negatively which might influence how Latinx adolescents report their experiences with internalizing (Valera & Hensley-Maloney, 2019). Thus, having a broader view of the various ways in which Latinx adolescents demonstrate Latinx cultural orientation may provide valuable insight into the complexities surrounding the intersections of culture and mental health among this population of youth.

Ethnic-Racial Discrimination: A Potential Moderator

Consistent data suggest that Latinx adolescents are at risk for contextual cultural stressors, such as ethnic-racial discrimination (Cervantes et al., 2013; McCord et al., 2019) that affect internalizing symptoms (Sirin et al., 2013). Ethnic-racial discrimination is defined as the experience of unfair treatment due to one’s ethnicity or race (Brenner & Graham, 2013). Ethnic-racial discrimination experiences during adolescence are associated with a number of negative outcomes such as academic achievement (Brown & Chu, 2012), self-esteem (Huynh & Fuligni, 2010), and externalizing behaviors (e.g., alcohol and drug use, Basáñez, et al., 2013). With regard to internalizing behaviors, Potocknic and Perreira (2010) found among a sample of 254 Latinx adolescents aged 12–19 that ethnic-racial discrimination was strongly associated with depression. Despite there being known associations between Latinx cultural orientation and lower internalizing symptoms (e.g., Perez et al., 2011), and between ethnic-racial discrimination and greater internalizing behaviors (e.g., Sirin et al., 2013), limited work has assessed the way in which ethnic-racial discrimination acts as a moderator to weaken positive associations between Latinx cultural orientation and internalizing behaviors. Further, in previous work, Latinx cultural orientation was assessed by one factor (e.g., identity), providing a limited perspective on how Latinx cultural orientation profiles may function in these relations. This is important to consider given that Meca and colleagues’ (2017) study of undocumented Latinx adults in the US indicated that cultural orientation profiles were differently associated with both discrimination and psychological functioning. Additionally, individuals who endorse a Latinx cultural orientation tend to be more likely to experience ethnic-racial discrimination (Cervantes et al., 2013; McCord et al., 2019). As noted, the integrative model (García Coll et al., 1996) posits that individuals’ development involves interactions between both individual cultural characteristics (e.g., Latinx cultural orientation) and contextual cultural characteristics (e.g., ethnic-racial discrimination). Therefore, ethnic-racial discrimination may be a moderator that weakens the positive effects of Latinx cultural orientation profiles on adolescents’ fewer internalizing symptoms.

Current Study

The current study will build on these gaps by focusing on Latinx cultural orientation using a typology approach. Our research questions were as follows: (1) Are there different profiles of adolescents distinguished by 3 indicators of Latinx cultural orientation: Spanish language use, familismo, and ERI affirmation?; (2) Do differences in Latinx cultural orientation profiles inform youths’ depressive and anxiety symptoms; and (3) Does ethnic-racial discrimination moderate associations between Latinx cultural orientation profiles and internalizing disorder symptoms? We expected to find various profiles of adolescents’ Latinx cultural orientation that would indicate non-linear associations between Latinx cultural orientation profiles (i.e., higher scores on some dimensions and lower scores on other dimensions). We hypothesized that profiles that involve higher Latinx cultural orientation across Spanish language use, familismo, and ERI affirmation will significantly be associated with lower levels of depression and anxiety (hypothesis 2). We also hypothesize that ethnic-racial discrimination will significantly moderate the association between Latinx cultural orientation and internalizing disorder symptoms, such that the relationship between the multidimensional profiles across Spanish language use, familismo, and ERI affirmation on levels of depression and anxiety will be weakened by ethnic-racial discrimination experiences (hypothesis 3).

Method

Participants

Data were from a larger study collected between 2010–2011, the Teen Life Online and in Schools Study, which examined general and race-related experiences of adolescents at school and while using the Internet among sixth through twelfth grade students. Participants were recruited from a total of 12 public schools from the Midwest U.S. (i.e., two K-8 schools, three sixth– eighth grade middle schools, one sixth-twelfth grade school, and six ninth-twelfth grade high schools). The Latinx population at each recruitment school ranged from 1% to 82%. Parental consent forms were obtained through information packets sent home with students; parental consent was returned by 49.8% of students. Twenty-six Latinx adolescents were dropped from the analyses after preliminary results indicated that there were missing data on key study variables. Therefore, the analytic sample included 204 Latinx adolescents (52% girls), who ranged in age from 11 to 18 years (M = 14.35; SD = 1.75) and reported that at least one of their parents had at least a high school education, on average. The majority of the sample (92%) reported being born in the U.S. They also reported that 90% of their fathers and 84% of theirs mothers were born in a Latin American country (76% of fathers and 71% of mothers were born in Mexico, 14% of fathers and 13% of mothers from other countries).

Procedure

Recruitment was conducted in collaboration with each school administration at each school site. Informational packets (in English and Spanish) including a study flyer, consent form, and assent form were given to students to take home to their parents. The research team returned to schools at a later date to administer data collection in school computer labs or in classrooms where the research team brought laptops into the classrooms. Surveys were administered via web links given to students who brought back parental consent forms by the data collection date. Surveys were programmed and distributed using surveymonkey.com. Participants provided online assent at the beginning of the survey, and answered questions addressing topics such as general Internet use, discrimination and victimization experiences, cultural orientation, and psychosocial functioning. Students completed the online survey in 45 minutes, on average. Throughout data collection, research assistants were on-site to discuss confidentiality with students, answer questions about the survey, and troubleshoot any technical difficulties that may have arisen with the online survey. Each participant received a monetary compensation in the form of a gift certificate and schools received a small stipend. All procedures were approved by the Institutional Review Board of the primary investigator’s academic institution.

Measures

Depressive symptoms.

Students reported on the frequency of their depressive symptoms over the past week with the Center for Epidemiologic Studies Depression 12 item scale (CES-D; Radloff, 1977). Items (e.g., “I had crying spells”) were scored on a 4-point Likert scale ranging from 0 (rarely or none of the time) to 3 (most or all of the time), with higher scores indicating the presence of more symptomatology over the past week. Inter-item reliability for the analytic sample was α = .67. The CES-D has been widely validated to be used with Latinx adolescents in English and Spanish (Crockett et al., 2005; Gonzalez et al., 2017; Tynes et al., 2020).

Anxiety symptoms.

Students reported on the frequency of their anxiety symptoms with the Profile of Mood States (POMS)-Adolescents, Tension Subscale (Terry et al., 1999). Students were asked the extent to which a list of four words (i.e., “panicky,” “anxious,” “worry,” and “nervous”) described how the adolescent was feeling at the time of the survey on a 5-point Likert scale ranging from 0 (not at all) to 4 (extremely), with higher scores indicating more symptoms of anxiety. Inter-item reliability for the analytic sample was α = .79. The POMS has been used with Latinx adolescents and validated in English and Spanish (Andrade et al., 2013; Tynes et al., 2020).

Spanish language use.

Students reported on their use of Spanish language and consumption of Spanish-language media using the Bidimensional Acculturation Scale for Hispanics (Marin & Gamba, 1996) Language Use and Electronic Media subscales. Four items were used from across these two subscales to specifically assess Spanish language use (e.g., “How often do you speak Spanish) and media consumption in Spanish (e.g., How often do you listen to music in Spanish?) Items were scored on a 4-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (almost always) to 4 (almost never). Items were reverse scored and then averaged together so that higher scores across these items indicated greater Spanish language use. Inter-item reliability for the analytic sample was α = .83.

Familismo.

Students reported on familismo using the Familism subscale of the Mexican American Cultural Values scale (Knight et al., 2010) – a scale that was developed for use with Mexican American populations, but has been used across various pan-Latinx groups given the relevance of familismo among these groups (e.g., Calzada et al., 2014). Across 16 items, students indicated their level of agreement with statements consistent with familismo (e.g., “Parents should teach their children that the family always comes first”) on a 5-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree), with higher scores indicating greater endorsement of cultural values of familismo. Inter-item reliability for the analytic sample was α = .76.

ERI affirmation.

Students reported on their ERI affirmation with regard to being Latinx using the Ethnic Identity Scale (EIS; Umaña-Taylor et al., 2004). Across 6 items, students indicated their thoughts and feelings about their ethnicity/race (e.g., “My feelings about my ethnicity are mostly negative”) on a 4-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 4 (strongly agree). Items were reverse scored so that higher scores indicated a greater sense of positive feelings about their ethnic-racial group. Inter-item reliability for the analytic sample was α = .86.

Ethnic-racial discrimination.

Students reported on their experiences with racial discrimination experienced in face-to-face contexts and online contexts using the short version of the Perceived Discrimination by Adults/Peers scale (Way, 1997) and the Online Victimization Scale - Race scale (OVS-race; Tynes et al., 2010). The Perceived Discrimination by Adults/Peers scale has demonstrated validity with use among Latinx adolescent samples (e.g., Greene et al., 2006). The OVS-race scale development and validation included Latinx adolescents (Tynes et al., 2010). Across 15 items from the Perceived Discrimination by Adults/Peers scale (e.g., “adults in school treat you like you’re NOT smart because of your race or ethnicity”) and 4 items from the OVS-race scale (e.g., “People have said mean or rude things about me because of my race or ethnic group online”), students indicated how frequently they experienced racial discrimination from others at school, in their community, and online. Responses were on a 5-point Likert scale ranging from 0 (never) to 4 (all the time), with higher scores indicating a greater frequency of ethnic-racial discrimination experiences. Inter-item reliability for the analytic sample was α = .94.

Covariates.

Students reported on several demographic characteristics that were examined as potential covariates in the current study. Students reported their age, their gender (0=male, 1=female), and the country they were born (re-coded as 0=foreign born, 1=US born). To obtain the percentage of Latinx students at a participants’ school, students indicated the school they attended at the time of data collection. Student reports were double-checked upon data entry to ensure consistency with the participant recruitment database for each school. The corresponding percentage of Latinx students enrolled at the school during the time of data collection was obtained from the common core of data survey provided by the National Center for Education Statistics (2010–2011) from the US Department of Education.

Data Analysis Plan

To identify Latinx adolescents with different levels of Latinx cultural orientation (i.e., Spanish language use, familismo, and ERI affirmation), and to test whether potentially relevant covariates (i.e., age, gender, generation status, and percentage of Latinx students of school) were predictors of Latinx cultural orientation profiles, we used Vermunt’s 3-Step LPA approach via Latent Gold 6.0 (Verumunt, 2010; Vermunt & Magidson, 2021). Vermunt’s 3-Step approach corrects classification errors that introduce bias when trying to examine associations between profile membership (estimated with continuous variables) and external variables. In Step 1, Spanish language use, familismo, and ERI affirmation were entered into the model to estimate the number of latent profiles. Profile enumeration occurred by estimating models with various latent profile solutions. Models were compared using Information Criterion (IC) fit statistics (Bayesian Information Criterion [BIC], Akaike Information Criterion [AIC], the Sample Adjusted Bayesian Information Criterion [SABIC]), the maximum bivariate residual (BVR), and the bootstrap likelihood-ratio test (BLRT; Tein et al., 2013; Bauer, 2021). Models that demonstrate the lowest IC statistics and the lowest maximum BVR are suggested to have the best model fit. Additionally, significant BLRT p-values indicate that the current model provides a significantly better model fit to the previous model (Tein et al., 2013). In Step 2, the best fitting model from Step 1 was re-estimated, saving the posterior probabilities for each profile membership for each participant. In Step 3, the estimated posterior probabilities were estimated with the covariates specified as predictors. Significant Wald tests distinguish covariates as significant predictors of profile posterior probabilities. Post-hoc paired comparisons using Wald tests indicated where covariates distinguish between estimated profile membership.

To identify whether Latinx cultural profile and ethnic-racial discrimination predict Latinx adolescents’ internalizing symptoms and whether ethnic-racial discrimination moderates associations between Latinx cultural profile and adolescents’ internalizing symptoms, the Regression module was used in Latent Gold 6.0, entering in the following as predictors of Latinx adolescents’ internalizing symptoms: profile posterior probabilities from the previous Step 2 described above, gender, ethnic-racial discrimination, and the interaction between profile posterior probabilities and ethnic-racial discrimination.

Results

Preliminary Results

Means, standard deviations, and intercorrelations of study variables are presented in Table 1. Latinx cultural orientation variables (i.e., Spanish language use, familismo, and ERI affirmation) did not demonstrate significant interrelations, suggesting that Spanish language use, cultural values of familismo, and ERI affirmation were unrelated for Latinx adolescents in the current sample, and providing support for the necessity of including all factors in investigations of Latinx cultural orientation.

Table 1.

Descriptive Statistics and Correlations of Study Variables (N = 204)

Mean (SD) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
1. Age 14.67 (1.77) -- −0.19* −0.11 −0.11 0.05 0.21** 0.18* −0.04 0.07
2. Maternal Education 2.19 (0.88) -- 0.59** −0.19* 0.06 −0.08 0.03 −0.01 0.11
3. Paternal Education 2.06 (0.92) -- 0.02 −0.03 −0.02 −0.09 −0.11 −0.12
4. Spanish Language Use 2.91 (0.80) -- 0.05 −0.11 0.05 −0.01 0.03
5. Familismo 4.04 (0.98) -- 0.11 −0.15* −0.07 0.07
6. Ethnic Identity Affirmation 3.64 (0.58) -- −0.33** −0.21** −0.08
7. Racial Discrimination 0.51 (0.65) -- 0.31** 0.28**
8. Depressive Symptoms 0.85 (0.44) -- 0.36**
9. Anxiety Symptoms 0.69 (0.80) --
Open in a new tab

Note:

*

p<.05

**

p<.01

To examine the existence of Latinx cultural orientation profiles using the dimensions of Spanish language use, familismo, and ERI affirmation, we conducted a latent profile analysis (LPA) using Latent Gold 5.1 (Vermunt & Magidson, 2013). Table 2 presents a comparison of models that estimate a one-profile solution (model 1) to a six-profile solution (model 6). According to the AIC and SABIC fit indices and a significant BLRT (in comparison to the three-solution model with a lower BIC), a four-profile solution appeared to fit the data best. Six models were estimated to compare profile solutions (see Table 2). Model estimation stopped at 6 profiles because the BLRT did not improve after the subsequent two models.

Table 2.

Model Fit Statistics From Latent Profile Analysis of Latinx Cultural Orientation Dimensions (N = 204)

Model BIC(LL) AIC(LL) SABIC(LL) L2 df p-value Class.Err. Entropy R 2 Maximum BVR BLRT
One-profile 1852.87 1816.21 1818.02 113.56 88 0.04 0.00 1.00 14.46 -
Two-profile 1858.09 1808.10 1810.57 97.45 84 0.15 0.09 0.53 0.72 0.00
Three-profile 1862.95 1799.63 1802.75 80.97 80 0.45 0.15 0.62 0.05 0.18
Four-profile 1870.01 1793.36 1797.14 66.71 76 0.77 0.14 0.70 0.04 0.01
Five-profile 1889.08 1799.10 1803.54 64.45 72 0.73 0.21 0.65 0.09 0.25
Six-profile 1906.14 1802.83 1807.92 60.18 68 0.74 0.24 0.64 0.06 0.37
Open in a new tab

Note: BIC = Bayesian Information Criterion, AIC = Akaike Information Criterion, SABIC = Sample-Adjusted Bayesian Information Criterion, LL = Log-likelihood, BVR = Bivariate Residuals; BLRT = Bootstrap Likelihood-Ratio Test

Latinx cultural orientation profiles are displayed in Figure 1, using the standardized means of Spanish language use, familismo, and ERI affirmation. Profile 1 (n = 79; 38.7%) is referred to as the Higher Affirmation and Lower Spanish (HALS) profile. Adolescents in this profile demonstrate a moderately low (a half standard deviation below the sample mean) use of Spanish language and the highest endorsement of ERI affirmation at a half standard deviation above the sample mean. Profile 2 (n = 74; 36.3%) is referred to as the Higher Spanish (HS) profile. Latinx adolescents in this profile demonstrated the highest level of Spanish language use at approximately one standard deviation above the mean, with average endorsement of familismo and ERI affirmation. Profile 3 (n = 31; 15.2%), the Lower Familismo and Affirmation (LFA) profile is distinguished by the lowest levels of familismo (almost one and a half standard deviations below the mean) and ERI affirmation (almost one standard deviation below the mean). Finally, Profile 4 (n = 20; 9.7%) is referred to as the Higher Familismo/Lower Spanish and Affirmation (HFLSA) profile. Latinx adolescents in this profile demonstrate the highest levels of familismo (almost one standard deviation above the mean), but the lowest levels of Spanish language use (about one and a quarter standard deviations below the mean) and low affirmation relative to the sample (about three quarters of a standard deviation below the mean). Means and standard deviations by profile are presented in Table 3.

Figure 1.

Figure 1

Open in a new tab

Summary of Enculturation Profiles Using Standardized Means

Table 3.

Means of Latinx Cultural Orientation Dimensions and Dependent Variables by Profiles

Variable Higher Affirmation & Lower Spanish (HALS; n=79) Higher Spanish (LS; n=74) Lower Familismo & Affirmation (LFA; n=31) Higher Familismo - Lower Spanish & Affirmation (HFLSA; n=20)
Unstandardized Means
Spanish Language Use 1.62 (0.43) 2.99 (0.42) 1.87 (0.43) 1.12 (0.15)
Familismo 4.21 (0.84) 4.14 (0.77) 2.72 (0.94) 4.90 (0.19)
Ethnic-Racial Identity Affirmation 3.93 (0.16) 3.70 (0.45) 3.08 (0.53) 3.17 (1.01)
Racial Discrimination 0.42 (0.61) 0.37 (0.48) 1.00 (0.82) 0.54 (0.73)
Depression 0.76 (0.46) 0.83 (0.46) 1.05 (0.38) 0.95 (0.34)
Anxiety 0.70 (0.86) 0.61 (0.75) 0.91 (0.76) 0.59 (0.71)
Standardized Means
Spanish Language Use −0.58 (0.54) 1.13 (0.52) −0.27 (0.54) −1.20 (0.19)
Familismo 0.17 (0.86) 0.10 (0.78) −1.34 (0.95) 0.88 (0.19)
Ethnic-Racial Identity Affirmation 0.52 (0.28) 0.12 (0.78) −0.97 (0.93) −0.80 (1.77)
Open in a new tab

Demographic variables were examined in association with Latinx cultural orientation profiles. Neither, age (ꭕ2 = 3.63, p = 0.300), gender (ꭕ2 = 7.34, p = 0.062), or first generation status (ꭕ2 = 1.09, p = 0.780) were significant predictors of profile membership. However, percentage of Latinx students in one’s school significantly predicted profile membership (ꭕ2 = 10.20, p = 0.017). Post hoc paired comparisons demonstrated that Latinx adolescents who attended a school with a higher percentage of Latinx students were mkore likely to be in the HALS profile than in the HS profile.

Latinx Cultural Orientation Profiles and Adolescents’ Internalizing Moderated by Discrimination

Depressive Symptoms.

Models specified in Latent Gold 6.0 Regression module to predict Latinx adolescents’ depressive symptoms revealed that controlling for gender (ꞵ = 1.38, ꭕ2(1) = 8.62, p = 0.003), profile membership (ꞵ = −1.42, ꭕ2(3) = 8.09, p = 0.044) and ethnic-racial discrimination (ꞵ = 0.98, ꭕ2(1) = 7.35, p = 0.007) were significant predictors of depressive symptoms. Post hoc paired comparisons showed that Latinx adolescents in the HALS profile reported significantly fewer depressive symptoms in comparison to LFA (ꭕ2(1) = 6.56, p = 0.010) and HFLSA adolescents (ꭕ2(1) = 4.41, p = 0.030). Also, Latinx adolescents in the HS profile reported fewer depressive symptoms in comparison to adolescents in the LFA profile. Further, greater exposure to ethnic-racial discrimination was associated with greater depression. There was no significant interaction between profile membership and ethnic-racial discrimination (ꞵ = −1.46, ꭕ2(3) = 1.04, p = 0.79).

Anxiety Symptoms.

Models specified in Latent Gold 6.0 Regression module to predict Latinx adolescents’ anxiety symptoms revealed that controlling for gender (ꞵ = 0.32, ꭕ2(1) = 1.22, p = 0.270), profile membership (ꞵ = −0.39, ꭕ2(3) = 8.09, p = 0.560) and ethnic-racial discrimination (ꞵ = 0.32, ꭕ2(1) = 1.03, p = 0.031) were not significant predictors of anxiety. There was no significant interaction between profile membership and ethnic-racial discrimination (ꞵ = 1.10, ꭕ2(3) = 3.88, p = 0.340).

Discussion

Grounded in risk and resilience theory (Luthar et al., 2000) and the integrative model for the study of developmental competencies in minority children (García Coll et al., 1996), findings from the current study expands previous theory and empirical work. The focus on Latinx cultural orientation profiles contributes to the literature on cultural and developmental psychology by attempting to understand the nuance with which Latinx adolescents who are largely U.S.-born maintain connection to their heritage culture. Using a latent profile analysis, we identified four profiles of enculturation: the Higher and Affirmation and Lower Spanish (HALS) profile, the Higher Spanish (HS) profile, the Lower Familismo and Affirmation (LFA) profile, and the Higher Familismo/Lower Spanish and Affirmation (HFLSA) profile. The nuance of Latinx cultural orientation patterns demonstrated across these profiles suggests that associations between these components may be more complex than originally theorized. For instance, although previous studies have indicated that behavioral components of Latinx cultural orientation (e.g., Spanish language use) are related to cultural values (Gomez, 2003), our preliminary results indicated that there were no correlations between Latinx adolescents’ behaviors, cultural values, and ERI. Thus, these multiple dimensions of the enculturation process are largely unique, and should be examined in ways that allow for multiple combinations of such factors. Additionally, three (i.e., HS, LFA, and HFLSA) profiles demonstrate that Latinx cultural values may not always be positively associated with the other ways they connect with their ethnic culture. For instance, the LFA profile was characterized by having a somewhat moderate level of Spanish language use coupled with low levels of familismo and ERI affirmation. Additionally, the HFLSA profile was characterized by higher levels of familismo but lower levels of both Spanish language use and ERI affirmation. The use of LPA in examining Latinx cultural orientation allowed for a unique examination in the heterogeneity of the adolescents’ experiences that previous variable-centered empirical investigations may have overlooked.

In addition to the variation of patterns of Latinx cultural orientation, we also found associations between adolescents’ profiles and internalizing symptoms. For instance, adolescents belonging to a profile that was characterized by low levels of more than one Latinx cultural orientation dimension (i.e., LFA which included low levels of familismo and affirmation and HFLSA which included low levels of Spanish language use and ERI affirmation) experienced more depressive symptoms than adolescents belonging to a profile that was characterized by either higher or moderate levels of more than one Latinx cultural orientation dimension. Such results highlight that it may be costly for Latinx adolescents to demonstrate low Latinx cultural orientation on multiple dimensions, potentially suggesting an additive or compounding effects of factors related to one’s heritage culture.

Finally, in contrast with expectations based on risk and resilience theory (Luthar et al., 2000) and the integrative model (García Coll et al., 1996), ethnic-racial discrimination experiences did not moderate associations between profiles of enculturation and internalizing symptoms. Although greater exposure to ethnic-racial discrimination did pose a risk to Latinx adolescents’ mental health in terms of greater depressive symptoms (consistent with previous research; Potocknic and Perreira, 2010; Sirin et al., 2013), the lack of interaction between profile membership and ethnic-racial discrimination may suggest that the complexity demonstrated in non-linear patterns of cultural orientation dimensions may provide inconsistent buffering and exacerbating effects that are canceled out when considered together.Whether or not certain aspects of Latinx cultural orientation are adaptive or not for Latinx adolescents may depend largely on the social and political climate toward Latinx communities (Lovato, 2019). That a higher percentage of Latinx students distinguished between HALS and HS profiles gives some indication that social context plays a role in the ways that these Latinx students connect to their culture and perhaps even experience and perceive ethnic-racial discrimination in their lives. These ideas should be further considered in future research with Latinx youth.

Limitations, Strengths, and Conclusions

One limitation of the study is that the sample was a pan-ethnic Latinx sample with participants were predominantly U.S. born (92%). As such, the results of this study do not necessarily apply to Latinx adolescents across the U.S., since experiences might change depending on their national origin, time lived in the U.S., and school population and community composition.

Although beyond the scope of the current study, future work should further investigate the contexts in which different patterns of Latinx cultural orientation are optimal for Latinx youth. The current study specifically examined ethnic-racial discrimination as a specific context in which having various levels of multiple factors of Latinx cultural orientation may be differentially associated with internalizing symptoms. However, there are other contextual factors that may also play a role, such as sociopolitical climate regarding Latinx communities (Lovato, 2019), and presence of community cultural and economic resources (Rios-Salas & Larson, 2015).

Additionally, the current study focused on anxiety and depressive symptoms as outcomes. First we note that the inter-item reliability of the depression measure in the current study is somewhat low (.67). Although the Center for Epidemiologic Studies Depression scale has been widely used with Latinx adolescents, there remains criticism about the ways that conceptualization of depression symptoms do not necessarily capture the ways in which these symptoms may be uniquely manifested and experienced among Latinx populations (Menselson et al., 2008). This may have contributed to the lower alpha in the current study. Future work that continues to examine how Latinx cultural orientation is associated with mental health should strive to use culturally derived measures of symptoms which may help to advance the work to move beyond symptoms, but also to the utilization of mental health services. Such an investigation could have implications for improving Latinx adolescents’ utilization of mental health services by clarifying the nuanced ways in which multidimensional Latinx cultural orientation impacts this utilization.

The current study makes a valuable contribution as it adds to the construct of Latinx cultural orientation in a way that has not been previously examined. Findings indicate that Latinx cultural orientation is multidimensional (e.g., including Spanish language use, cultural values of familismo, and ERI affirmation), and has impacts on lower internalizing symptoms among Latinx adolescents. We argue that looking beyond a single factor involved in Latinx cultural orientation will provide a more useful, culturally-relevant examination of the ways in which Latinx youth maintain a connection with their heritage culture, and experience more improved mental health outcomes.

Acknowledgments

Research reported in this publication was supported by the Eunice Kennedy Shriver National Institute of Child Health & Human Development of the National Institutes of Health under Award Number R01HD061584 (PI: Brendesha Tynes). The content is solely the responsibility of the authors and does not necessarily represent the official views of the National Institutes of Health.

References

  1. Andrade E, Arce C, De Francisco C, Torrado J, & Garrido J. (2013). Versión breve en español del cuestionario POMS para deportistas adultos y población general. Revista de psicología del deporte, 22(1), 95–102. [Google Scholar]
  2. Ayón C, Marsiglia FF, & Bermudez‐Parsai M. (2010). Latino family mental health: Exploring the role of discrimination and familismo. Journal of Community Psychology, 38(6), 742–56. doi: 10.1002/jcop.20392. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  3. Basáñez T, Unger J, Soto D, Crano W, & Baezconde-Garbanati L. (2013). Perceived discrimination as a risk factor for depressive symptoms and substance use among Hispanic adolescents in Los Angeles. Ethnicity & Health 18(3), 244–61. doi: 10.1080/13557858.2012.713093. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  4. Benner A, & Graham S. (2013). The antecedents and consequences of racial/ethnic discrimination during adolescence: Does the source of discrimination matter? Developmental Psychology, 49(8), 1602–1613. doi: 10.1037/a0030557. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  5. Berger Cardoso J, Szlyk B, Goldbach H, Swank S, & Zvolensky J. (2018). General and ethnic-biased bullying among Latino students: Exploring risks of depression, suicidal ideation, and substance use. Journal of Immigrant and Minority Health, 20(4), 816–822. doi: 10.1007/s10903-017-0593-5. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  6. Berry JW (1980). Acculturation as varieties of adaptation. In Padilla AM (Ed.), Acculturation: Theory, models, and some new findings, pp. 9–25. Boulder, CO: Westview. [Google Scholar]
  7. Brittian AS, Kim SY, Armenta BE, Lee RM, Umaña-Taylor AJ, Schwartz SJ, . . . Hudson ML (2015). Do dimensions of ethnic identity mediate the association between perceived ethnic group discrimination and depressive symptoms? Cultural Diversity and Ethnic Minority Psychology, 21(1), 41–53. doi: 10.1037/a0037531. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  8. Brown C, & Chu H. (2012). Discrimination, ethnic identity, and academic outcomes of Mexican immigrant children: The importance of school context. Child Development, 83(5), 1477–1485. doi: 10.1111/j.1467-8624.2012.01786.x. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  9. Burgos G, & Rivera F. (2009). The (in)significance of race and discrimination among Latino youth: The case of depressive symptoms. Sociological Focus, 42(2), 152–171. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  10. Capielo Rosario C, Lance C, Delgado-Romero E, & Domenech Rodríguez M. (2019). Acculturated and acultura’os: Testing bidimensional acculturation across central Florida and island Puerto Ricans. Cultural Diversity and Ethnic Minority Psychology, 25(2), 152–169. doi: 10.1037/cdp0000221. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  11. Calzada EJ, Huang KY, Linares-Torres H, Singh SD, & Brotman L. (2014). Maternal familismo and early childhood functioning in Mexican and Dominican immigrant families. Journal of Latinx Psychology, 2(3), 156–171. doi: 10.1037/lat0000021. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  12. Cavanaugh AM, Stein GL, Supple AJ, Gonzalez LM, & Kiang L. (2018). Protective and promotive effects of Latino early adolescents’ cultural assets against multiple types of discrimination. Journal of Research on Adolescence, 28(2), 310–326. https://doi-org.proxy.library.vcu.edu/10.1111/jora.12331. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  13. Cervantes R, Padilla A, Napper L, & Goldbach J. (2013). Acculturation-related stress and mental health outcomes among three generations of Hispanic adolescents. Hispanic Journal of Behavioral Sciences, 35(4), 451–468. doi: 10.1177/0739986313500924. [DOI] [Google Scholar]
  14. Céspedes Y, & Huey S. (2008). Depression in Latino adolescents: A cultural discrepancy perspective. Cultural Diversity and Ethnic Minority Psychology, 14(2), 168–172. doi: 10.1037/1099-9809.14.2.168. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  15. Christophe NK, Stein GL, Kiang L, Supple AJ, & Gonzalez LM (2020). Latent profiles of American and ethnic–racial identity in Latinx mothers and adolescents: Links to behavioral practices and cultural values. Journal of Latinx Psychology, 8(2), 142–160. 10.1037/lat0000136 [DOI] [Google Scholar]
  16. Crockett LJ, Randall BA, Shen Y-L, Russell ST, & Driscoll AK (2005). Measurement Equivalence of the Center for Epidemiological Studies Depression Scale for Latino and Anglo Adolescents: A National Study. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 73(1), 47–58. 10.1037/0022-006X.73.1.47 [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  17. Cupito A, Stein M, & Gonzalez G. (2015). Familial cultural values, depressive symptoms, school belonging and grades in Latino adolescents: Does gender matter? Journal of Child and Family Studies, 24(6), 1638–1649. doi: 10.1007/s10826-014-9967-7. [DOI] [Google Scholar]
  18. Davis AN, Carlo G, Schwartz SJ, Zamboanga BL, Armenta B, Kim SY, . . . Streit C. (2018). The roles of familism and emotion reappraisal in the relations between acculturative stress and prosocial behaviors in Latino/a college students. Journal of Latina/o Psychology, 6(3), 175–189. doi: 10.1037/lat0000092. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  19. Derlan CL, Umaña-Taylor AJ, Toomey RB, Updegraff KA, & Jahromi LB (2015). Person-environment fit: Everyday conflict and coparenting conflict in Mexican-origin teen mother families. Cultural Diversity and Ethnic Minority Psychology, 21, 136–145. doi: 10.1037/a0037069 [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  20. García Coll C, Lamberty G, Jenkins R, McAdoo HP, Crnic K, Wasik BH, & García HV (1996). An integrative model for the study of developmental competencies in minority children. Child Development, 67(5), 1891–1914. doi: 10.2307/1131600 [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  21. Gomez C. (2003). The relationship between acculturation, individualism/collectivism, and job attribute preferences for Hispanic MBAs*. Journal of Management Studies, 40(5), 1089–1105. doi: 10.1111/1467-6486.00372. [DOI] [Google Scholar]
  22. González P, Nuñez A, Merz E, Brintz C, Weitzman O, Navas EL, Camacho A, Buelna C, Penedo FJ, Wassertheil-Smoller S, Perreira K, Isasi CR, Choca J, Talavera GA, & Gallo LC (2017). Measurement properties of the Center for Epidemiologic Studies Depression Scale (CES-D 10): Findings from HCHS/SOL. Psychological Assessment, 29(4), 372–381. 10.1037/pas0000330 [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  23. Greene ML, Way N, & Pahl K. (2006). Trajectories of perceived adult and peer discrimination among Black, Latino, and Asian American adolescents: Patterns and psychological correlates. Developmental Psychology, 42(2), 218–236. 10.1037/0012-1649.42.2.218 [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  24. Guarnaccia PJ, Pincay IM, Alegria M, Shrout PE, Lewis-Fernandez R, & Canino GJ (2007). Assessing diversity among Latinos: Results from the NLAAS. Hispanic Journal of Behavioral Sciences, 29(4), 510–534. doi: 10.1177/0739986307308110. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  25. Huynh V, & Fuligni A. (2010). Discrimination hurts: The academic, psychological, and physical well‐being of adolescents. Journal of Research on Adolescence, 20(4), 916–941. doi: 10.1111/j.1532-7795.2010.00670.x. [DOI] [Google Scholar]
  26. IBM Corp. Released 2017. IBM SPSS Statistics for Windows, Version 25.0. Armonk, NY: IBM Corp. [Google Scholar]
  27. Kann L, Mcmanus T, Harris W, Shanklin S, Flint K, Queen B, Lowry R, & Ethier KA Ethier, K. (2018). Youth risk behavior surveillance United States, 2017. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report. Surveillance Summaries (Washington, D.C. : 2002), 67(8), 1–114. doi: 10.15585/mmwr.ss6708a1. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  28. Knight GP, Gonzales NA, Saenz DS, Bonds DD, Germán M, Deardorff J. ,… Updegraff KA (2010). The Mexican American Cultural Values Scale for adolescents and adults. Journal of Early Adolescence, 30, 444– 481. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  29. Livas Stein G, Gonzalez L, Cupito A, Kiang L, & Supple A. (2015). The protective role of familism in the lives of Latino adolescents. Journal of Family Issues, 36(10), 1255–1273. doi: 10.1177/0192513X13502480. [DOI] [Google Scholar]
  30. Lorenzo-Blanco E, & Unger I. (2015). Ethnic discrimination, acculturative stress, and family conflict as predictors of depressive symptoms and cigarette smoking among Latina/o youth: The mediating role of perceived stress. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 44(10), 1984–1997. doi: 10.1007/s10964-015-0339-4. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  31. Lovato K. (2019). Forced separations: A qualitative examination of how Latino/a adolescents cope with parental deportation. Children and Youth Services Review, 98, 42–50. doi: 10.1016/j.childyouth.2018.12.012. [DOI] [Google Scholar]
  32. Luthar SS, Cicchetti D, & Becker B. (2000). The construct of resilience: a critical evaluation and guidelines for future work. Child Development, 71(3), 543–562. 10.1111/1467-8624.00164 [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  33. Marin G, & Gamba R. (1996). A new measurement of acculturation for Hispanics: The bidimensional acculturation scale for Hispanics (BAS). Hispanic Journal of Behavioral Sciences, 18(3), 297–316. doi: 10.1177/07399863960183002. [DOI] [Google Scholar]
  34. Marquez J, & Ramírez García J. (2013). Family caregivers’ narratives of mental health treatment usage processes by their Latino adult relatives with serious and persistent mental illness. Journal of Family Psychology, 27(3), 398–408. doi: 10.1037/a0032868. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  35. Martinez W, & Polo A. (2018). Neighborhood context, family cultural values, and Latinx youth externalizing problems. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 47(11), 2440–2452. doi: 10.1007/s10964-018-0914-6. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  36. Mccord A, Draucker C, & Bigatti S. (2019). Cultural stressors and depressive symptoms in Latino/a adolescents: An integrative review. Journal of the American Psychiatric Nurses Association, 25(1), 49–65. doi: 10.1177/1078390318778885. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  37. McLaughlin KA, Hilt LM, & Nolen-Hoeksema S. (2007). Racial/ethnic differences in internalizing and externalizing symptoms in adolescents. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology. 35(5), 801–816. doi: 10.1007/s10802-007-9128-1. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  38. Meca A, Cobb C, Xie D, Schwartz SJ, Allen C. & Hunter R. (2017). Exploring adaptive acculturation approaches among undocumented Latinos: A test of Berry’s model. The Counseling Psychologist, 45(8), 1115–1140. doi: 10.1177/0011000017745978 [DOI] [Google Scholar]
  39. Meca A, Schwartz S, Martinez C, & McClure H. (2018). Longitudinal effects of acculturation and enculturation on mental health: Does the measure matter?. 31(4), 1599. doi: 10.1017/S0954579419000129. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  40. Menselson T, Rehkopf DH, & Kubzansky LD (2008). Depression among Latinos in the United States: A meta-analytic review. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 76(3), 355–366. 10.1037/0022-006X.76.3.355 [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  41. Merikangas KR, He J, Burstein M, Swanson SA, Avenevoli S, Cui L, Benjet C, Georgiades K, & Swendsen J. (2010). Lifetime prevalence of mental disorders in U.S. adolescents: Results from the national comorbidity survey replication–adolescent supplement (NCS-A). Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 49(10), 980–989. doi: 10.1016/j.jaac.2010.05.017. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  42. Mikolajczyk RT, Bredehorst M, Khelaifat N, Maier C, & Maxwell AE (2007). Correlates of depressive symptoms among Latino and non-Latino white adolescents: Findings from the 2003 California Health Interview Survey. BioMed Central Public Health, 7(21). doi 10.1186/1471-2458-7-21. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  43. Ortega AN, Rosenheck R, Alegria M, Desai RA (2000). Acculturation and the lifetime risk of psychiatric and substance use disorders among Hispanics. Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 188, 728–735. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  44. Park I, Du H, Wang L, Williams D, & Alegría M. (2019). The role of parents’ ethnic-racial socialization practices in the discrimination-depression link among Mexican-origin adolescents. Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology : The Official Journal for the Society of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology, American Psychological Association, Division 53, 1–14. doi: 10.1080/15374416.2018.1547969. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  45. Patil PA, Porche MV, Shippen NA, Dallenbach NT, & Fortuna LR (2018). Which girls, which boys? The intersectional risk for depression by race and ethnicity, and gender in the U.S. Clinical Psychology Review, 66, 51–68. doi: 10.1016/j.cpr.2017.12.003. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  46. Perez R, Araujo Dawson B, & Suárez-Orozco C. (2011). Understanding acculturation, depressive symptoms, and the protective role of family involvement among Latino(a) immigrant families. Journal of Family Social Work,14(5), 429–445.doi: 10.1080/10522158.2011.617030. [DOI] [Google Scholar]
  47. Pew Hispanic Center. (2016). Key facts about young Latinos, one of the nation’s fastest-growing populations. Retrieved from https://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2018/09/13/key-facts-about-young-latinos/. [Google Scholar]
  48. Phinney J. (1992). The Multigroup Ethnic Identity Measure: A new scale for use with diverse groups. Journal of Adolescent Research, 7, 156–176. doi: 10.1177/074355489272003. [DOI] [Google Scholar]
  49. Potochnick SR, & Perreira KM (2010). Depression and anxiety among first-generation immigrant Latino youth: Key correlates and implications for future research. The Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 198(7), 470–477. doi: 10.1097/NMD.013e3181e4ce24. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  50. Quintana S. (1998). Children’s developmental understanding of ethnicity and race. Applied and Preventive Psychology, 7(1), 27–45. doi: 10.1016/S0962-1849(98)80020-6. [DOI] [Google Scholar]
  51. Radloff L. (1977). The CES-D Scale: A self-report depression scale for research in the general population. Applied Psychological Measurement, 1(3), 385–401. doi: 10.1177/014662167700100306. [DOI] [Google Scholar]
  52. Ríos-Salas V, & Larson A. (2015). Perceived discrimination, socioeconomic status, and mental health among Latino adolescents in US immigrant families. Children and Youth Services Review, 56, 116–125. doi: 10.1016/j.childyouth.2015.07.011. [DOI] [Google Scholar]
  53. Romero AJ, & Ruiz M. (2007). Does familism lead to increased parental monitoring? Protective factors for coping with risky behaviors. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 16, 143–154. [Google Scholar]
  54. Rubio-Hernandez RS, & Ayon C. (2016). Pobrecitos los ninos: The emotional impact of anti-immigration policies on Latino children. Children Youth and Services Review, 60, 20–26. [Google Scholar]
  55. Salas-Wright CP, Clark TT, Vaughn MG, Córdova D. (2015). Profiles of acculturation among Hispanics in the United States: links with discrimination and substance use. Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology, 50, 39–49. doi: 10.1007/s00127-014-0889-x. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  56. Schwartz S, Unger J, Zamboanga B, & Szapocznik J. (2010). Rethinking the concept of acculturation: Implications for theory and research. The American Psychologist, 65(4), 237–251. doi: 10.1037/a0019330. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  57. Sirin S, Ryce P, Gupta T, & Rogers-Sirin L. (2013). The role of acculturative stress on mental health symptoms for immigrant adolescents: A longitudinal investigation. Developmental Psychology, 49(4), 736–748. doi: 10.1037/a0028398. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  58. Smith-Morris C, Morales-Campos D, Alvarez E, & Turner M. (2013). An anthropology of familismo: On narratives and description of Mexican/immigrants. Hispanic Journal of Behavioral Sciences, 35(1), 35–60. doi: 10.1177/0739986312459508. [DOI] [Google Scholar]
  59. Smokowski P, Rose RA, Evans CBR, & Cotter KL (2014). Familial influences on internalizing symptomatology in Latino adolescents: An ecological analysis of parent mental health and acculturation dynamics. Development and Psychopathology, 26, 1191–1207. doi: 10.1017/S0954579414000960. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  60. Tein J, Coxe S, & Cham H. (2013). Statistical power to detect the correct number of classes in latent profile analysis. Structural Equation Modeling: A Multidisciplinary Journal, 20(4), 640–657. 10.1080/10705511.2013.824781 [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  61. Telzer EH, Gonzales N, & Fuligni AJ (2014). Family obligation values and family assistance behaviors: Protective and risk factors for Mexican–American adolescents’ substance use. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 43(2), 270–283. doi: 10.1007/s10964-013-9941-5. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  62. Telzer EH, Tsai KM, Gonzales N, & Fuligni AJ (2015). Mexican American adolescents’ family obligation values and behaviors: Links to internalizing symptoms across time and context. Developmental Psychology, 51(1), 75 −86. doi: 10.1037/a0038434. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  63. Terry PC, Lane AM, Lane HJ, & Keohane L. (1999). Development and validation of a mood measure for adolescents. Journal of Sports Sciences, 17(11), 861–872. doi: 10.1080/026404199365425. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  64. Tynes BM, English D, Toro JD, Smith NA, Lozada FT, & Williams DR (2020). Trajectories of Online Racial Discrimination and Psychological Functioning Among African American and Latino Adolescents. Child Development, 91(5), 1577–1593. 10.1111/cdev.13350 [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  65. Tynes B, Rose A, & Williams D. (2010). The development and validation of the Online Victimization Scale for Adolescents. Cyberpsychology: Journal of Psychosocial Research on Cyberspace, 4(2), 1–16. [Google Scholar]
  66. Umaña-Taylor A, Updegraff J, & Gonzales-Backen K. (2011). Mexican-origin adolescent mothers’ stressors and psychosocial functioning: Examining ethnic identity affirmation and familism as moderators. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 40(2), 140–157. doi: 10.1007/s10964-010-9511-z. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  67. Umaña-Taylor AJ, Yazedjian A, & Bámaca-Gómez M. (2004). Developing the ethnic identity scale using Erikson and social identity perspectives. An International Journal of Theory and Research, 4, 9–38. doi: 10.1207/S1532706XID0401_2. [DOI] [Google Scholar]
  68. Varela R, Niditch E, Hensley-Maloney L, Moore A, Creveling L, & Jones K. (2019). Culture specific influences on anxiety in Latino youth. Child & Youth Care Forum, 48(1), 1–17. doi: 10.1007/s10566-018-9476-8. [DOI] [Google Scholar]
  69. Varela R, Weems E, Berman C, Hensley F, & Bernal S. (2007). Internalizing symptoms in Latinos: The role of anxiety sensitivity. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 36(4), 429–440. doi: 10.1007/s10964-007-9168-4. [DOI] [Google Scholar]
  70. Vermunt JK (2010). Latent class modeling with covariates: Two improved three-step approaches. Political Analysis, 18(4), 450–469. 10.1093/pan/mpq025 [DOI] [Google Scholar]
  71. Vermunt JK, and Magidson J. (2021). LG-Syntax User’s Guide: Manual for Latent GOLD Syntax Module Version 6.0. Arlington, MA: Statistical Innovations Inc. [Google Scholar]
  72. Way N. (1997). Adult and peer discrimination measure. Unpublished document. [Google Scholar]
  73. Williams CD, Byrd CM, Quintana SM, Anicama C, Kiang L, Umaña-Taylor AJ,Calzada EJ, Gautier MP, Ejesi K, Tuitt NT, Martinez-Fuentes S, White L, Marks A, Rogers LO, & Whitesell N. (2020). A lifespan model of ethnic-racial identity. Research in Human Development, 17(2–3), 99–129. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  74. Yoon E, Langrehr K, & Ong LZ (2011). Content analysis of acculturation research in counseling and counseling psychology: A 22-year review. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 58, 83–96. doi: 10.1037/a0021128. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  75. Zeiders KH, Umaña-Taylor AJ, & Derlan CL (2013). Trajectories of depressive symptoms and self-esteem in Latino youths: Examining the role of gender and perceived discrimination. Developmental Psychology, 49, 951–963. doi: 10.1037/a0028866 [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

RESOURCES