. 2024 Jun 27;16(13):2044. doi: 10.3390/nu16132044

Table 5.

Studies included in the systematic review of the effect of Omega-3 on inflammatory markers, oxidant response, muscle damage, and physical performance in healthy and physically active adults.

First Author, Year of Publication, and Country	Study Design	Participants	Intervention	Outcomes	Results
Ávila-Gandía et al. [36], 2020, Spain	Randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled, parallel-group trial	n = 50 ♂ Amateur cyclists competing at regional level Gn-3 n = 18 Age (mean ± SD) 35.5 ± 7.3 years Weight (mean ± SD) t 72.4 ± 4.4 kg BMI (mean ± SD) 23.83 ± 1.43 Relative VO₂ max (mean ± SD) 48.5 ± 6.8 mL/min/kg CG n = 20 Age (mean ± SD) 36.0 ± 9.6 years Weight (mean ± SD) 71.1 ± 3.4 kg BMI (mean ± SD) 23.42 ± 1.31 Relative VO₂ max (mean ± SD) 49.3 ± 6.1mL/min/kg Study withdrawals: 12	Gn-3 3 soft-gels Per unit: 325 mg DHA + 40 mg EPA (Brudy plus, Brudytechnology, Barcelona, Spain) CG Sunflower oil Supplementation time: 30 days	Muscle damage Blood Lactate Physical performance Absolute VO₂ HR MPO Relative VO₂ RP time VO₂ VT2	Gn-3 vs. CG ↔ Blood Lactate ↓Absolute VO₂ (6’) ↓ HR ↑* MPO ↓* Relative VO₂ (6’) ↑* RP ↑* Time ↔ VO₂ ↑* VT2	Gn-3 Changes from baseline ↔ Blood Lactate ↓* Absolute VO₂ (6’) ↓* HR ↑* MPO ↓* Relative VO₂ (6’) ↑* RP ↑* Time ↑* VO₂ CG Changes from baseline ↔ Blood Lactate ↔ Absolute VO₂ (6’) ↔ HR ↔ MPO ↔ Relative VO₂ (6’) ↔ RP ↔ time ↔ VO₂
Barquilha et al. [37], 2023, Brazil	Randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled, parallel-group trial	n = 21 ♂ Gn-3 n = 8 CG n = 8 Physically active Age: 20–30 years Study withdrawals: Gn-3 n = 3 CG n = 2	Gn-3 3 capsules Per unit: 260 mg EPA + 202 mg DHA 3 times daily (Capsule Naturalis Nutricao & Farma LTDA, Sao Paulo, Brazil) Supplementation time: 6 weeks	Hematology Heme Iron Iron Hormones T/C Inflammatory biomarkers CRP IL-6 Muscle damage CK LDH Oxidative stress GSH GSSG GSH/GSSG TEAC	Gn-3 vs. CG ↔ Heme Iron ↔ Iron ↓ CRP ↓ IL-6 ↓ CK ↓ LDH ↑* GSH ↓* GSSG ↑* GSH/GSSG ↔TEAC	Gn-3 Changes from baseline ↔T/C ↓* CRP ↓* IL-6 ↓ CK ↓ LDH
Brook et al. [38], 2021, United Kingdon	Randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled, parallel-group trial	n = 16 ♀ Recreationally active Gn-3 n = 8 ♀ Age (mean ± SD) 64.4 ± 0.8 years Height (mean ± SD) 162 ± 0.02 cm Weight (mean ± SD) 70.5 ± 2.5 kg BMI (mean ± SD) 26.6 ± 0.7 kg/m² % Fat (mean ± SD) 40.8 ± 1.1% Lean Mass (mean ± SD) 39.4 ± 1.1 kg CG n = 8 ♀ Age (mean ± SD) 66.5 ± 1.4 years Height (mean ± SD) 158 ± 0.02 cm Weight (mean ± SD) 64.3 ± 1.9 kg BMI (mean ± SD) 2.8 ± 0.9 kg/m² % Fat (mean ± SD) 39.1 ± 1.6% Lean Mass (mean ± SD) 37.1 ± 1.6 kg Study withdrawals: 0	Gn-3 Per unit: 1860 mg EPA +1540 mg DHA (Minami Epacor) CG Cornoil Supplementation time: 6 weeks	Anthropometry BM Bone mass FFM LBM Muscle function ASR Calpain MAFbx MPS Myonuclei SC Ubiquitin VL Physical performance 1-RM MVC	Gn-3 vs. CG ↔ BM ↔ Bone mass ↔ FFM ↔ LBM ↔ ASR _{untrained leg (0–6 weeks)} ↔ Calpain ↔ MAFbx ↔ MPS _{untrained leg} ↔ Myonuclei _{type I-II fibre} ↔ SC _{type I fibre} ↔ Ubiquitin ↑ 1-RM _{trained leg} ↔ MCV _{trained leg} ↔ MCV _{untrained leg}	Gn-3 Changes from baseline ↔ BM ↔ Bone mass ↔ FFM ↔ LBM ↑* ASR _{untrained leg (0–2 weeks)} ↑ ASR _{untrained leg (4–6 weeks)} ↔ Calpain ↔ MAFbx ↔ MPS _{untrained leg (0–2 weeks)} ↔ MPS _{untrained leg (0–4 weeks)} ↑* Myonuclei _{type I-II fibre} ↔ SC _{type I fibre} ↔ Ubiquitin ↑ 1-RM _{trained leg} ↔ MCV _{trained leg} ↔ MCV _{untrained leg} CG Changes from baseline ↔ BM ↔ Bone mass ↔ FFM ↔ LBM ↑* ASR _{untrained leg (0–2 weeks)} ↔ ASR _{untrained leg (4–6 weeks)} ↔ Calpain ↔ MAFbx ↑* MPS _{untrained leg (0–2 weeks)} ↔ MPS _{untrained leg (2–4 weeks)} ↑* Myonuclei _{type I-II fibre} ↔ SC _{type I fibre} ↔ Ubiquitin ↑ 1-RM _{trained leg} ↔ MCV _{trained leg} ↔ MCV _{untrained leg}
Heileson et al. [39], 2023, United States	Randomized, single-blind, placebo-controlled, parallel-group trial	n = 28 (n = 12 ♂ and n = 16 ♀) Recreationally Trained Gn-3 n = 10 n = 5 ♂ and n = 5 ♀ Age (mean ± SD) 28.0 ± 7.4 years Height (mean ± SD) 169.7 ± 9.6 cm Weight (mean ± SD) 75.1 ± 16.0 kg BMI (mean ± SD) 25.8 ± 3.5 kg/m² % Fat (mean ± SD) 23.9 ± 6.9% CG n = 11 5 ♂ and 6 ♀ Age (mean ± SD) 30.5 ± 5.7 years Height (mean ± SD) 171.8 ± 8.9 cm Weight (mean ± SD) 79.0 ± 16.0 kg BMI (mean ± SD) 26.6 ± 4.3 kg/m² % Fat (mean ± SD) 24.9 ± 8.0% Study withdrawals: Gn-3 n = 4 CG n = 3	Gn-3 7 capsules 2.275 g/d EPA + 1.575 g/d DHA (Nordic Naturals, ProOmega, Watsonville, CA, USA) CG 5 capsules 4.5 g/d (NOW, Bloomingdale, IL, USA) Supplementation time: 10 weeks	Anthropometry LBM FM BF Biochemistry DBS Physical performance absolute 1RM_BP absolute 1RM_SQT ∆ relative 1RM_BP ∆ relative 1RM_SQT	Gn-3 vs. CG ↔ LBM ↔ FM ↔ BF ↑* DBS ↑* absolute1RM_BP ↔ absolute 1RM_SQT ↑* ∆ relative 1RM_BP ↑* ∆ relative 1RM_SQT	Gn-3 Changes from baseline ↑ LBM ↓ FM ↓ BF ↑* DBS ↑ absolute 1RM_BP ↑ absolute 1RM_SQT ↑* ∆ relative 1RM_BP ↑* ∆ relative 1RM_SQT CG Changes from baseline ↑ LBM ↓ FM ↔ BF ↔ DBS ↑ absolute 1RM_BP ↑ absolute 1RM_SQT ↑* ∆ relative 1RM_BP ↑* ∆ relative 1RM_SQT
Jakeman et al. [40], 2017, United Kingdom	Randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled, parallel-group trial	n = 27 ♂ Physically active > 3 h/week of vigorous athletic training + HIIT High Gn-3 n = 9 Age (mean ± SD) 25.5 ± 5.2 years Height (mean ± SD) 1.74 ± 0.06 m Weight (mean ± SD) 76.5 ± 12.6 kg Low Gn-3 n = 9 Age (mean ± SD) 25.6 ± 4.8 years Height (mean ± SD) 1.82 ± 0.09 m Weight (mean ± SD 80.2 ± 12.0 kg CG n = 9 Age (mean ± SD) 26.2 ± 4.2 years Height (mean ± SD) 1.78 ± 0.01 m Weight (mean ± SD 82.9 ± 12.1 kg Study withdrawals: 0	Gn-3 1 g/capsule Dose: 1 g/10 kg BM High Gn-3 (EPA 750 mg + DHA 50 mg)/capsule Low Gn-3 (EPA 150 mg + DHA 100 mg)/ capsule CG Oil (flavour masker and gelatine) Supplementation time: 1 day	Inflammatory biomarkers IL-6 Muscle damage CK Perception markers VAS Physical performace CJ Knee extensor strength SJ	High Gn-3, Low Gn-3 vs. CG ↔ IL-6 ↔ CK ↔ VAS ↔ CJ ↔ Knee extensor strength ↑* SJ	High Gn-3, Low Gn-3 Changes from baseline ↔ IL-6 ↑* CK (24 h) ↑* VAS (24 h) ↓ (at 96 h) ↓ CJ (at 1 h) ↓* Knee extensor strength to 60° s⁻¹ and 180° s⁻¹(1 h–96 h) ↓* SJ (at 1 h)
Lee et al. [41], 2022, United States	Randomized, placebo-controlled trial	n = 28 (n = 10 ♂ and n = 18 ♀) Physically active RET-G n-3 n = 10 Age (mean ± SD) 67.1 ± 4.4 years Height (mean ± SD) 171.6 ± 9.3 cm Weight (mean ± SD) 70.8 ± 13.5 kg BMI (mean ± SD) 24.0 ± 3.2 kg/m² RET n = 10 Age (mean ± SD) 66.6 ± 7.3 years Height (mean ± SD) 167.9 ± 5.7 cm Weight (mean ± SD) 66.5 ± 11.5 kg BMI (mean ± SD) 23.5 ± 3.6 kg/m² CG n = 8 Age (mean ± SD) 66.5 ± 5.0 years Height (mean ± SD) 167.2 ± 10.24 cm Weight (mean ± SD) 68.9 ± 15.8 kg BMI (mean ± SD) 24.3 ± 3.4 kg/m² Study withdrawals: 0	RET- Gn-3: 3 capsules/day Per unit: 700 mg EPA + 240 mg DHA RET 3 capsules/day Safflower oil CG 3 capsules/day Safflower oil Supplementation time: 12 weeks	Inflammatory biomarkers IL-6 CRP TNF-α Metabolism TMR FAT oxidation CHO oxidation Physical Performance 1RM lat pull-dow 1RM leg-press 1RM seated row 1RM calf rise 1RM biceps curl VO₂ VCO₂ RER	RET-Gn-3 vs. RET vs. CG ↓* IL-6 (RET-Gn-3 vs. CG) ↓* CRP ↓* TNF-α (RET-Gn-3 vs. CG) ↔ TMR ↑* 1RM lat pull-dow (RET-Gn-3, RET) ↑* 1RM leg-press (RET-Gn-3, RET) ↑* 1RM seated row (RET-Gn-3, RET) ↑* 1RM calf rise (RET-Gn-3, RET) ↑* 1RM biceps curl (RET-Gn-3, RET) ↑* VO₂ ↑* VCO₂ ↓* RER	RET-Gn-3 Changes from baseline ↓* IL-6 ↓* CRP ↓ TNF-α ↑* TMR ↑* FAT oxidation ↓* CHO oxidation ↑* 1RM in lateral pull ↑* 1RM leg-press ↑* 1RM seated row ↑* 1RM calf rise ↑* 1RM biceps curl ↑* VO₂ ↑* VCO₂ ↓* RER RET Changes from baseline ↔ IL-6 ↔ CRP↔ TNF-α ↑* TMR↑ FAT oxidation ↓ CHO oxidation ↑* 1RM in lateral pull ↑* 1RM leg-press ↑* 1RM seated row ↑* 1RM calf rise ↑* 1RM biceps curl ↑* VO₂ ↑* VCO₂ ↔ RER CG Changes from baseline ↔ IL-6 ↔ CRP ↑ TNF-α ↔ TMR ↔ FAT oxidation ↔ CHO oxidation ↓* 1RM in lateral pull ↓* 1RM leg-press ↔ 1RM seated row ↓* 1RM calf rise ↓* 1RM biceps curl ↔ VO₂ ↔ VCO₂ ↔ RER
Lembke et al. [16], 2014, United States	Randomized, Single-blind, placebo-controlled, parallel-group trial	n = 69 ♂ and ♀ Physically active Gn-3 n = 42 Age (mean ± SD) 18.6 ± 1.2 years CG n = 22 Age (mean ± SD) 18.9 ± 1.1 years Study withdrawals: 5	Gn-3 6 capsules 2.7 g/day (KD Pharma, Bexbach, Germany) CG 6 capsules High oleic sunflower oil Supplementation time: 30 days	Inflammatory biomarkers CRP Muscle damage Blood lactate CK Perception markers VAS POMS Physical Performance ROM Torque	Gn-3 vs. CG ↓* CRP ↓* Blood lactate ↔ CK (48 -96 h) ↓* VAS (at 72, at 96 h) ↑* POMS (72 h) ↔ ROM ↔ Torque	Gn-3 Changes from baseline ↓* CRP ↔ CK ↓ VAS ↓ POMS (at 48 h and 96 h) ↑ POMS (at 48 h, and at 96 h CG) ↓ ROM ↓ Torque (until 48 h)
Mullins et al. [42], 2022, United States	Randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled, parallel-group trial	n =38 ♂ Competitive Gn-3 n =12 CG n = 17 Study withdrawals: Gn-3 n =7 CG n = 2	Gn-3 Soft gel capsules Per unit: 1 g: 407 mg/g DHA+ 170 mg/g EPA Pharmavite (West Hills, California) CG Per capsule 713 mg/g oleic acid + 130 mg/g linoleic acid (safflower oil) Pharmavite (West Hills, California) Supplementation time: 26 weeks	Biochemistry Plasma AA Plasma DHA Plasma DPA Plasma EPA Inflammatory biomarkers IL-6 TNF-α Injury Neurofilament	Gn-3 vs.CG ↔ Plasma AA ↓* Plasma DHA _{(0–7 weeks)} ↑* Plasma DHA _{(8–26 weeks)} ↓* Plasma DPA _{(week 33)} ↑* Plasma EPA_{(week 8,12,17,21)} ↔ IL-6 ↔ TNF-α ↔ Neurofilament	Gn-3 Changes from baseline ↓Plasma AA _{(week 8,12,17,21,26)} ↑Plasma DHA ↑Plasma DPA _{(week 8)} ↑Plasma EPA _{(week 8,12,17,21,26)} ↔IL-6 ↔TNF-α ↑Neurofilament CG Changes from baseline ↔Plasma AA ↔Plasma DHA ↔Plasma DPA ↔Plasma EPA ↔IL-6 ↔TNF-α ↑Neurofilament
Nieman et al. [43], 2015, United States	Randomized (1:1 allocation), placebo-controlled, crossover trial	n = 24 16 ♂ and 8 ♀ Competitive runners Age (mean ± SD) 38.0 ±1.7 year Height (mean ± SD) 1.72 ±0.02 m Weight (mean ± SD) 71.8 ± 3.0 kg % Fat (mean ± SD) 19.9 ±1.6 VO_2max (mean ± SD) 47.9 ±1.6 Study withdrawals: 0	Gn-3 0.5 L water with chia seed oil 0.43 g ALA/BM (Dole Foods California, USA), CG 0.5 L of flavored water alone Supplementation time: two occasions separated by 2 weeks	Biochemistry Plasma glucose Leukocyte Plasma ALA Hormones Cortisol Inflammatory biomarkers IL-6 IL-8 IL-10 TNF-α Muscle damage Blood lactate Perception markers RPE Physical performance HR RER VO₂	Gn-3 vs.CG ↓ Plasma glucose ↔ Leukocyte ↑* Plasma ALA ↑* Cortisol ↓ IL-6 ↓ IL-8 ↓ IL10 ↓TNF-α ↓ Blood lactate ↓ RPE ↔ HR ↔ RER ↓VO₂	Changes from baseline ↑ Plasma glucose ↑* Leukocyte ↑* Plasma ALA ↑* Cortisol ↑* IL-6 ↑* IL-8 ↑* IL10 ↑* TNF-α ↑ Blood lactate
Tomczyk et al. [33], 2024, Poland	Randomized, placebo-controlled, parallel-group trial	n = 40 ♂ Endurance runners Gn-3 n = 14 Age (mean ± SD) 37 ± 3 years Height (mean ± SD) 181 ± 7 cm Weight (mean ± SD) 76 ± 11 kg HRmax (mean ± SD) 190 ± 9 beats/min⁻¹ CG n =12 Age (mean ± SD) 37 ± 4 years Height (mean ± SD) 180 ± 4 cm Weight (mean ± SD) 78 ± 8 kg HRmax (mean ± SD) 186 ± 9 beats/min⁻¹ Study withdrawals: 14	Gn-3 2234 mg/d EPA + 930 mg/d DHA CG 4000 mg/d MCT Supplementation time: 12 weeks	Biochemistry Red blood cell DHA Plasma DHA Red blood cell EPA Plasma EPA Plasma Trp metabolites (7) Inflammatory biomarkers IL-6 Perception markers EA HT TA	Gn-3 vs. CG IL-6 Red blood cell DHA Plasma DHA Red blood cell EPA Plasma EPA Plasma Trp metabolites ↔ EA ↔ HT ↔ TA	Gn-3 Changes from baseline ↑* Red blood cell DHA ↑* Plasma DHA ↑* Red blood cell EPA ↑* Plasma EPA ↑* Plasma Trp metabolites ↔ IL-6 ↔ EA ↔ HT ↔ TA CG Changes from baseline ↔ Red blood cell DHA ↔ Plasma DHA ↔ Red blood cell EPA ↔ Plasma EPA ↔ Plasma Trp metabolites ↔ IL-6 ↔ EA ↔ HT ↔ TA
Tsuchiya, et al. [34], 2021, Japan	Randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled, parallel-group trial	n =23 ♂ Recreational Gn-3 n = 11 Age (mean ± SD) 20.2 ± 0.4 years Height (mean ± SD) 167.4 ± 5.4 cm Weight (mean ± SD) 65.0 ± 8.9 kg % Fat (mean ± SD) 17.2 ± 6.9% BMI (mean ± SD) 23.2 ± 2.9 kg/m² CG n = 11 Age (mean ± SD) 19.8 ± 1.5 years Height (mean ± SD) 169.0 ± 7.8 cm Weight (mean ± SD) 65.4 ± 8.4 kg % Fat (mean ± SD) 15.7 ± 7.6% BMI (mean ± SD) 23.2 ± 3.3 kg/m² Study withdrawals: 1	Gn-3: 8 Softgel capsule of 300 mg /d Total: 2.4 g/d (600 mg EPA + 260 mg DHA) Nippon Suisan Kaisha Ltd., Tokyo, Japan CG: 8 softgel capsules of 300 mg/d corn oil Supplementation time: 4.5 weeks	Anthropometry UAC Biochemistry Blood lipids AA EPA DGLA DHA Dietary Intake Kcal CHO prot FAT Omega-3 Inflammatory biomarkers IL-6 Muscle damage CK Perception markers VAS Physical Performance Echo thickness Echo intensity MVIC ROM	Gn-3 vs. CG ↔ UAC ↑* EPA ↔ Kcal ↔ CHO ↔ prot ↔ FAT ↔ Omega-3 ↔ IL-6 ↓* CK ↔ VAS ↔ Echo thickness ↔ Echo intensity ↔ MVIC ↑* ROM (IP)	Gn-3 Changes from baseline ↑UAC (IP) ↑ EPA (after 4 w) ↔ AA ↔ DGLA ↔ DHA ↔ Kcal ↔ CHO ↔ prot ↔ FAT ↔ Omega-3 ↔ CK ↔ IL-6 ↑* VAS (1–4 d) ↔ Echo thickness ↑ Echo intensity ↓* MVIC ROM: G n-3: ↓* IP and 1 d, after ↑ = to pre
Tsuchiya et al. [17], 2016, Japan	Randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled, parallel-group trial	n = 24 ♂ Recreational Gn-3 n = 12 Age (mean ± SD) 19.4 ± 0.7 years Height (mean ± SD) 174.4 ± 5.6 cm Weight (mean ± SD) 64.3 ± 7.7 kg % Fat (mean ± SD) 13.0 ± 3.5% CG n =12 Age (mean ± SD) 19.5 ± 0.8 years Height (mean ± SD) 174.3 ± 6.7 cm Weight (mean ± SD) 66.2 ± 8.0 kg % Fat (mean ± SD) 13.6 ± 2.8% Study withdrawals: 0	Gn-3 8 Softgel capsule Fish oil Per unit: 300 mg EPA + 130 mg DHA (Nippon Suisan Kaisha Ltd. Tokyo) CG 8 Softgel capsule Per unit: 300 mg corn oil (Nippon Suisan Kaisha Ltd. Tokyo) Supplementation time: 8 weeks prior to exercise + 5 days after exercise	Anthropometry UAC Biochemistry AA DHA Inflammatory biomarkers IL-6 TNF-α Muscle damage CK Mb Perception markers VAS brachii VAS brachialis VAS brachioradialis Physical Performance MVC torque ROM	Gn-3 vs. CG ↔ UAC ↔ AA ↔ DHA ↓* IL-6 ↔ TNF-α ↔ CK ↔ Mb ↔ VAS brachii ↓* VAS brachialis ↔VAS brachioradialis ↑* MVC ↑* ROM	Gn-3 Changes from baseline ↔ UAC ↔ AA ↔ DHA ↔ IL-6 ↔ TNF-α ↔ CK ↔ Mb ↑ VAS brachii (at day 1–3) ↑* VAS brachialis (at day 2) ↔VAS brachioradialis ↓MVC ↓ ROM CG Changes from baseline ↔ UAC ↔ AA ↔ DHA ↑ IL-6 (at day 3) ↔ TNF-α ↔ CK ↑* Mb ↑ VAS brachii (day 1 to day 3) ↑* VAS brachialis (day 1 to day 3) ↔ VAS brachioradialis ↓* MVC ↓* ROM (at day 3)
VanDusseldrorp et al. [35], 2020, United States	Randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled, parallel-group trial	n = 32 (16 ♂ and 16 ♀) Physically active: 3 to 5 d/w, minimum of 3 h/w and a maximum of 8 h/w and no more than 2 h/w of aerobic exercise 2 g Gn-3 n = 8 (4♂ and 4♀) Age (mean ± SD) 23.5 ± 3.3 years Height (mean ± SD) 170.9 ± 6.9 cm Weight (mean ± SD) 76.1 ± 14.2 kg % Fat (mean ± SD) 20.8 ± 4.1% 4g Gn-3 n = 8 (4♂ and 4♀) Age (mean ± SD) 23.3 ± 3.0 years Height (mean ± SD) 172.9 ± 4.7 cm Weight (mean ± SD) 69.7 ± 15.9 kg % Fat (mean ± SD) 19.0 ± 6.2% 6g Gn-3 n = 8 (4♂ and 4♀) Age (mean ± SD) 23.8 ± 2.8 years Height (mean ± SD) 173.8 ± 7.6 cm Weight (mean ± SD) 72.8 ± 13.5 kg % Fat (mean ± SD) 19.4 ± 6.1% CG n = 8 (4♂ and 4♀) Age (mean ± SD) 23.0 ± 3.0 years Height (mean ± SD) 173.6 ± 6.2 cm Weight (mean ± SD) 67.9 ± 10.7 kg % Fat (mean ± SD) 20.6 ± 7.2% Study withdrawals: 0	Gn-3 Capsule Per unit: 400 mg EPA + 300 mg DHA 2 g Gn-3 2 g/d (1400 mg: 800 mg EPA + 600 mg DHA) 4 g Gn-3 4 g/d (2800 mg: 1600 mg EPA + 1200 mg DHA) 6g Gn-3 6 g/d (4200 mg: 2400 mg EPA + 1800 mg DHA) (MusclePharm, Denver, USA) CG Safflower oil (Capsule Muscle Pharm) Supplementation time: 7.5 weeks	Muscle damage CK LDH Perception markers VAS Performance MVIC VJ _height 40 yd Sprint	2 g Gn-3, 4g Gn-, 6g Gn-3 vs. CG 24 h: ↓6 g Gn-3 vs. 2 g Gn-3 48 h: ↓ 6 g Gn-3 vs. 4 g Gn-3 72 h: ↓* 6 g Gn-3 vs. CG LDH ↓* 6 g Gn-3 vs. CG (at to 72 h) ↓* 6 g Gn-3 vs. 2 g Gn-3 (at to 72 h) VAS 2 h: CG ↑* vs. 6 g Gn-3 24 h: ↓* 4 g Gn-3 vs. CG ↑* CG vs. 6 g Gn-3 48 h: ↑* CG vs. 6 g Gn-3 ↓* 6 g Gn-3 vs. 4 g Gn-3, 2 g Gn-3 72 h: ↑* CG vs. 4 g Gn-3 ↑* CG vs. 6 g Gn-3 ↔ MVIC ↓* VJ _height CG ↔ 40 yd Sprint	Changes from baseline ↑* CK in all group ↑* LDH in all group ↓* 40 yd Sprint VAS ↓* MVIC (until 70 h) ↓ VJ _height (until 48 h) ↑* in all group (24 h) ↑* CG, 2 g Gn-3, 4 g Gn-3 (48 h)

Abbreviations: ↑ = no significant increase; ↓ = no significant decrease; ↑* = significant increase; ↓* = significant decrease; ↔* = no significant change; ↔ no change; * = indicates significant values (p < 0.05); Gn-3 = omega-3 supplementation group; CG = control group; n = number of participants; AA = arachidonic acid; ALA = alpha-linolenic acid; ASR = absolute synthesis rate; BF = body fat; BMI = body mass index; BM = body mass; CHO = carbohydrates; CK = creatin kinase; CJ = countermovement jump; CRP = C-reactive protein d = day; w = week; DBS = Fatty acid dried blood spot; DGLA = dihomo-gamma-linolenic acid; DHA = docosahexaenoic acid; DPA = docosapentaenoic acid; DOMS = perceived muscle pain; EA = Energetic arousal; EPA = eicosapentaenoic acid; FFM = fat free mass; FM = fat mass; GSH = reduced glutathione, GSSG = oxidized glutathione; GSH/GSSG = reduced/oxidized glutathione ratios; h = hours; HR = heart rate; HRmax = maximum heart rate; HIIT = high-intensity intermittent training; HT = hedonic tone; IETE = incremental exercise test to exhaustion; IL1β = interleukin 1 beta; IL-2 = interleukin-2; IL-6 = interleukin 6; IL-8 = interleukin 8; IL-10 = interleukin 10; IP = immediately post-exercise; kcal = calories; LBM = lean body mass; LDH = lactate dehydrogenase; Mb = Myoglobin; MCT = medium chain triglycerides; MPS = muscle protein synthesis; MPO = mean power output; MVIC = maximal voluntary isometric contraction; MVC = maximal voluntary contraction; POMS = profile of mood states; PUFA = omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids; RER = Respiratory exchange ratio; ROS = reactive oxygen species; RT = relative power; RPE = perceived exertion; RET = Resistance exercise training; ROM = range of motion; 1RM = maximum repetition; SC = satellite cell; SJ = Squat jump; TA = tense arousal; T-AOC = Total antioxidant capacity; T/C: Testosterone/cortisol; TEAC = trolox equivalent antioxidant capacity; TNFα = Tumor necrosis factor-alpha; protein = protein; TMR = resting metabolic rate; Trp = tryptophan; Pre = pre exercise; Post = post exercise; UAC = upper arm circumference; VAS: visual analogue scale; VCO₂max = volume of carbon dioxide; VJ = vertical jump; VL = vastus lateralis;VT2 = ventilatory threshold 2; VO₂max = oxygen volume; w = week; yd = yards.