Figure 1. The two ways AI can work in surgery.

A schematic showing the two ways in which AI can work in surgery. The first way is depicted here, and the second way is by expanding the surgeon’s “umwelt” (Figure 2). It shows that AI can work effectively by expanding the surgeon’s cognition, that is, by providing decision support by expanding the availability and analysis of data that would otherwise be unavailable or inaccessible to the surgeon. AI-derived management will also substantially increase the productivity of the operating room.

Author’s own illustration.

AI: artificial intelligence; OR: operating room; MRI: magnetic resonance imaging; AR: augmented reality