A qualitative approach on the instructional materials used in teaching and learning of English Language in Tanzania's secondary schools

Abstract

This study investigated the use of instructional materials in teaching English at secondary schools in Tanzania. The study aimed to achieve three objectives: firstly, to identify the instructional materials utilized for teaching and learning English in secondary schools in Tanzania; secondly, to explore how learners engage with these instructional materials; and thirdly, to examine the rationale behind the selection and utilization of these materials. It used a qualitative approach with a case study design and it involved twelve English language teachers and form three students. The qualitative case approach was used to observe the classroom and conduct interviews to collect data and they were analysed thematically. The findings reveal that teachers employ both printed and handwritten materials for English instruction in Tanzania. Learners interact with these materials primarily through reading, writing, and responding to questions. The choice of materials depends on what is being studied, their availability, easiness to use and economic reasons. The study has the implication on the definition of instructional materials that it adds that the definition of materials needs to be modified by including people and their actions, such as humour, laughter, sarcasm, gestures, bodily movements, reactions to stimuli like questions, speech and its supra segmental or prosodic features during instruction. It recommends that training teachers to be creative in using materials and the government has to provide infrastructure to support electronic devices in schools.

Highlights

• •This was a qualitative study.
• •It used classroom observations and interviews to collect data
• •The findings show that:
• •That teachers use printed and hand-written materials to teach English in Tanzania.
• •The learners interact within three ways, namely, reading, writing and answering questions.
• •The choice of materials depends on what is being studied and their availability.

1. Introduction

Instructional materials in the teaching and learning of the English language are of great importance, particularly for encouraging communication between teachers and their students and among students. Tarrayo and Anudin [1] inform that teaching and learning materials play a vital role in creating a meaningful language-learning journey, they form the foundation for the language input learners absorb and the language practice that occurs in the classroom. Their correct use enables the attainment of the competences required, making teaching and learning more meaningful as students may then learn independently (Uchenna et al., 2021 [2]). Using them also means that English language teachers speak less so that the lesson is taught effectively in the prescribed time. For the learners, they materials make them active, accelerate their ability to speak, read and write and increase their listening competence in the target language [3]. Materials motivate learners and strengthen their confidence to read independently (Kung, 2019), provide them with experience of the language in use and opportunities to reflect on it [4]. They act as a source for the language input which learners obtain, especially if they meet their language needs [1], whereby they can communicate effectively as they experience the language used in real life communication. That is why the achievement of teaching and learning in the classroom goes hand in hand with the use of instructional materials (Kodriyah, Islamiah & Aprizani, 2020). On the contrary, the lack of or the inefficient use of them will result in learners facing difficulties in learning a foreign language ([5] Azri & Al-Rashidi, 2014).

Tomlinson (2011) defines materials as anything used by teachers or learners to facilitate the learning of a language. They can be anything which is aimed at increasing the knowledge and experience of learners of the target language. Materials can be instructional as they inform learners about the language, they can be experiential in that they provide exposure to the language in use, they can be elucidative in that they stimulate language use and they can be exploratory as they can facilitate discoveries about language use (p. 2). Instructional materials are learning resources (Nzewi, 1995), and so are not limited to textbooks but include chalkboards, pens, diagrams and audio-visual devices that can be employed in the classroom to facilitate the teaching and learning process. Similarly, Tomlinson [6] exemplifies that materials can be course books, videos, games, websites, mobile interactions, among others; although, most of literature concentrates on printed materials particularly, as text-books. It follows that materials need to be of different varieties and available in the school library to meet the requirements of a particular subject, in this case, achieving competence in communicating in English.

Consequently, in Tanzania, the Education and Training Policy (MoETV, 2014), English language syllabus for secondary education [7] and Curriculum for Secondary Education in Tanzania [8] underscore the importance of English language communicative competence in Tanzania's education system, aiming to equip students with the necessary communicative skills to thrive in an increasingly interconnected world. In Tanzania, the education system is divided into several levels, including pre-primary, primary, secondary, and tertiary education. At each level, English plays a crucial role in instruction and learning. In primary education level, English is introduced gradually as a compulsory subject. Pupils are exposed to Basic English vocabulary and grammar through activities such as songs, rhymes, and simple conversations. At the secondary level, English becomes a compulsory subject again and the medium of instruction for all subjects with exception of Swahili. Students are expected to develop communicative competence in English to effectively engage with the curriculum and prepare for national examinations and communicate with others within and outside the country. Additionally, English language classes are offered to further enhance students' language skills. In tertiary education, English continues to be the medium of instruction in universities, colleges, and vocational training institutions. Proficiency and mastery of communicative competence in English is essential for academic success and for accessing a wide range of educational and employment opportunities, recognizing its importance as a global language of communication and commerce both within Tanzania and internationally.

To achieve communicative competence, authentic instructional materials should be used [9], which are defined as any materials that have not been specifically produced for the purpose of teaching a language but for communication ([10]; Richards, 2001; [6]). They are in three categories: i) Authentic listening materials, involving the auditory process, such as news and songs on radio. ii) Authentic visual materials, involving sight and include street signs, magazines and newspapers, pictures and postcards. iii) Authentic printed materials which include sports reports, newspapers, restaurant menus, train tickets (Genhard, 1996). The use of such materials in the classroom heightens the interest, motivation, confidence, independence and attention of learners (Kung, 2019 [11]; Azri & Al Rashid, 2014), familiarizes the learners with the language needed in real life [9], promotes language learning (Berardo, 2006) and contains authentic language, reflecting its use in the real world (Richards 2001 [12]). However, teachers’ creativity is greatly needed for production of authentic materials as they are not readily available. Sekiziyivu [13] asserts that bringing real life examples of language use into the classroom may not be done easily, giving language teachers a lot more work in preparing a lesson unless authentic instructional materials containing examples of the language spoken in real life [13].

The issue of instructional materials is one of the challenges that English language teachers in Tanzania face while teaching English. For instance, Mbwambo (1990) found that these teachers find it difficult to teach different grammar topics, such as tenses, spelling, use of the article, summary of writing, irregular verbs, punctuation, word order and conditionals, due to the lack of instructional materials in secondary schools (Makewa, Role & Ngusa 2012). Similarly, Brock-Utne et al. (2010) found that the examination performance and English language usage among secondary school students were very poor. Thus, this worsening of English language among learners of all levels of education in Tanzania might be explained by, among other factors, the lack of appropriate diverse instructional materials to use, as these contribute a lot to learning [14].

Globally, studies on instructional materials have focused on different themes. Some studies concentrated on the use of textbooks for teaching and learning a language [[15], [16], [17], [18]]. There are other studies which focused on the use of ICT and E-learning instructional materials and their effects in learning language such as Arabic (Ritonga et al., 2024 [19]; Martínez-Soto & Prendes-Espinosa, 2023; [20]). Also, some studies paid attentions on developing and designing materials for next generation in flexible learning ([1,21]; Lyimo & Mapunda, 2016; [22]). Besides, other studies focused specifically on some English language topics such as developing English grammar instructional materials oriented to constructivism theory and Materials for an oral presentations class on gesture ([23]; Andika & Firdaus, 2023 [24]). Further, some studies involved in the adequacy and availability of instructional materials and physical facilities in primary and secondary education as perceived by teachers, pupils and administrators (Manjale & Abel, 2017; Lyimo et al., 2017; Makewa, Role & Ngussa, 2012 [25]). Also, some studies focused on the relationship between language learning and the development of materials [26,27]. Yet, Mzinga and Onyango (2021) studied on instructional materials for teaching geography. Ultimately, there are some systematic reviews on the role of ICT and CALL in compulsory education and accessibility within open education resources and practices for disabled learners ([28]; Zhan et al., 2020).

A critical synthesis of these studies reviewed, indicate that much attention has been paid to the investigation of text book books, ICT and E-learning, material development and designing, materials for specific English topics such as grammar and speaking, adequacy, availability and physical facilities, relationship between language learning and material development, materials for geography and systematic review on ICT and disabled learners. There are very few studies which focused on types of materials teachers use, how learners interact with materials and why teachers choose to use such materials. This is to say, there is a paucity of studies on the use of materials, which calls for more studies particularly on types of materials and how learners interact with them ([[29], [30], [31], [32]]; Guerrett et al., 2021). Thus, this study intended to fill that gap. For this reason this study investigated on the instructional materials used in teaching and learning of English language in Tanzania's secondary schools. As such, this study had these objectives.

• i)To identify the instructional materials used for the teaching and learning of English in secondary schools in Tanzania
• ii)To find out how learners interact with these instructional materials during English language learning sessions.
• iii)To examine why do English language teachers choose to use these materials during the instruction and learning session.

The findings of this study may be of interest and useful to teachers, policy makers in Tanzania and similar contexts with very low resources such as sub Saharan Africa to inform on the choice, design and use of instructional materials in language teaching and learning. It also contributes to add literature at global level on instructional materials from Tanzanian perspectives.

2. Ethical consideration

The study adhered to all research protocols, including obtaining research clearance from the authorities, securing informed consent from participants for interview and classroom observations, and maintaining confidentiality in handling and documenting field information. Participants were informed that participation was voluntary, and they had the option to withdraw at any time. Prior permission was obtained from participants for recording interviews and classroom observations using mobile phones.

3. Methodology

3.1. Approach and design

This study used the qualitative approach and it was employed a case study design [33]. This enabled the researcher to deeply study and analyse the data obtained from a natural setting where the study took place. Based on the assumptions of the qualitative approach as described by Yin [33], this study was conducted in a natural setting where English is formally taught and materials are used in the classroom. The study as a qualitative approach, it enabled to interact with participants and obtained in-depth information with regard to answers of the research question. Through qualitative approach the researcher interacted with participants through interviews and classroom observations. This helped to obtain deeper understanding about instructional materials used in teaching English in Tanzania [34]. Also, the selection of the approach and design were guided by the study's objectives, which necessitated engaging with participants within the natural context of the phenomenon under investigation [35]. To ensure the trustworthiness of the research process, data were collected through multiple sources such as classroom observation and interviews. The triangulation of these methods helped to verify the reliability of findings. Yet, thick descriptions of the participants and research context, detailed records of data collection have been provided.

3.2. Study area

Six secondary schools in Tanga city were selected purposively as the criterion was that only government schools were to be involved in this study, because most parents in Tanzania send their children to these schools and teachers have the same qualifications, although in this case with minor variations. Also schools were selected basing on national examination results of 2022 where best, average and poor categories of schools were picked up. In each category, two schools were involved.

3.3. Participants

Twelve English language teachers of form three from the six schools, i.e. two from each, were selected purposively. The selection was based on such criteria as being teacher of English language, who teach form three classes. This is because they were regarded as information rich and able to provide detailed explanations for this study, as they are involved in selecting the type of instructional materials that would be used in the English language classroom. Among them, eight male teachers aged 39–51 years and four female teachers aged 37–52 years took part in the study. All the twelve teachers had 9–19 years under their belt of teaching English in the country's secondary schools, hence veterans. Among them, 7 had Bachelor degree in education specializing in teaching of English language while five teachers had Diploma in language education.

The study used form three students. Most of these students had the age range of 15–17 years. This class has been learning English from primary Education for seven years and thereafter they learn English in secondary education for four years. Being form three, it means this was their third year of learning English in secondary schools. Thus, these were the advanced learners who could provide enough information about instructional materials. Also, form three was chosen because it is not an examination class, unlike to forms two and four, where students undergo intensive coaching, which would probably distort the information.

3.4. Methods of data collection

The study used two methods to generate data namely classroom observation and interview. The first was classroom observation which was used to identify the teaching and learning materials used to help learners to communicate in English, and to find out how teachers and learners interact with these materials in the classroom. In other words, the observations helped to obtain actual practices on the use of instructional materials [36]. The observational data were recorded on camera and field notes. The classroom observations were used in the form three classes when the lessons were in progress and it was no-participant observation, where the researcher sat behind of the students. The classroom observation took about 40 t0 80 min depending of the school timetable and each classroom observed had 45 to 65 students. The classroom observation was guided by an observational protocol which had descriptive and reflective parts. The descriptive part reported all issues about types of instructional materials and how teachers and students interact with materials while reflective part was a column in which the researcher commented on the practices related to the use of materials in the class and were put into parentheses [ … .].

The second method was interviewing the twelve English language teachers to find out why they chose those materials for the teaching and learning of English. Interviews offered a plethora of advantages in this study. Firstly, they provide an opportunity for the researcher to delve deeply into participants' perspectives and opinions by providing reasons for the choice of materials they use in the classes, gaining rich insights that would not be obtained through observations [37]. Additionally, interviews allowed for flexibility, enabling the researcher to adapt questions based on participants' responses, thereby fostering a more nuanced understanding of the topic [38]. In this case, it was a semi structured, face to face interview between the researcher and participants, with an interview guide which had these questions which helped to prompt teachers: Would you please explain what materials do you use in teaching English? Can you share with me please, what makes you to decide on the choice of the materials? Please can I from you, how relevant are the teaching learning materials found here in school? Can you tell in details we how available are the materials? I mean, which materials (resources) are abundant here at school? Would you discuss with me which type of T/L material have you ever designed in your course of teaching English? Moreover, interviews facilitated rapport-building, establishing trust between the interviewer and the participant, which led to more candid responses [39]. For easy interaction and prompting the participants the English language was used during the interviews, which took about 60 min and were recorded on a tape recorder. The interviews were conducted after prior arrangements with teachers and agree upon the appropriate date for interviews.

3.5. Data analysis procedures

Being a qualitative study, this study employed thematic analysis with six steps as postulated by Braun and Clarke [40] in combination with Braun & Clarke [41] which emphasizes on reflexive approach. The analysis was done manually in order to feel the data and thus, no machine aided the process. Firstly, the recorded classroom observations and interviews were transcribed into readable form. Secondly, as thematic analysis is meaning driven, chunks which were related semantically were grouped as initial codes. Thirdly, theses codes were categorized in relation to the objectives of the study as themes. Depending on Braun and Clarke [41], themes are typically the patterns of meaning from participants’ narrations of their experience, so all related coded were regarded as a theme. Fourth, these themes were reviewed by looking at the data and then determined if they addressed the research objectives. It is this time that the themes found in this study were fully established. Then, naming of the themes were done through emic approach, where the names originated from the data. Lastly, the research was reported with detailed theme aided by quotes. Participants were attributed to A1, A2, B1, B3, C1, C2.

4. Findings

4.1. Istructional materials used for the teaching and learning of English

This first objective of this study was to identify the instructional materials used for the teaching and learning of English in secondary schools in Tanzania. The observational data show that English language teachers use printed, handwritten materials and persons in teaching and learning of English.

4.1.1. Printed materials

As with the printed material, the findings show that teachers used two types namely books and national examination past papers to teach English language. The detailed explanations are hereunder presented.

4.1.1.1. Books

Data from observation show that teachers used the textbook English Language for Secondary Schools Book Three to teach the active and passive voice. For example, teachers (A1, A2, B1, C2, E2 and F1) in the first session used books in their classes to teach grammar-related topics and in both of their sessions relied mostly on the use of books, while teachers C2 and F1 in both sessions observed, taught literary works using books to teach the lesson. The observational data show that C2 opened English language book three while A2 entered the classroom with papers and books in his hands”. These observational data show that teachers use books in the classes as their main instructional material. Extract 1 from A1 exemplifies how teachers used books to teach English grammar.

Extract 1. Using Books.

T. [The teacher enters the classroom with book titled:] Grammar.

And Composition Handbook]

. T. [Writes on the blackboard]: ACTIVE AND PASSIVE VOICE.

T. [The teacher takes the Grammar and Composition.

Handbook] reads and writes on the blackboard]. Active voice

Happens when the subject of the sentence performs the action.

T. Read it class.

S. [In chorus] Active voice happens when the subject of the sentence performs the action.

T. Thank you very much. So, when the subject is the doer of the action it is called ….

S. [In chorus] active voice.

T. Look at this sentence: [Writes after reading from the book].

The brown bear caught a salmon. This sentence is in the active

Voice. Ok?

S. [In chorus] Yes.

Examples of books used by English language teachers.

It is evident from Excerpt 1 that A1 used the Grammar and Composition Handbook as shown in Fig. 1 to teach about the active and passive voice. Other teachers used English Language book three, recommended by the Tanzania Institute of Education (TIE) to be used in secondary schools in Tanzania. Generally, it can be said books are the major teaching and learning materials used in English language classes.

Fig. 1.

(Source: Field work) Books used to Teach English Language in Secondary Schools in Tanzania.

4.1.1.2. National examination past papers, samples and extracts

Data from classroom observations show that D1, A2 and C1 in the first session and F1 in the second session taught English topics using examination past papers. Mostly, in these cases they taught their students how to answer examination questions. During a post-instructional assessment session, A2, who was teaching letter writing, gave learners an assignment using examination past papers. The researcher made the following observation with regard to the teaching and learning materials.

Extract 2: Using examination past papers.

T. [In the second session]: [Teacher circulates last year's national examination question papers to each group and tells them].

T. Can you see the question about letter writing?

S. Yes.

T. This was last year's examination. Is it ok?

S. Yes.

T. Answer that question from this examination as instructed. Are we together?

S. Yes.

An example of past examination paper used to teach letter writing.

The observational data show that teachers used examination past papers as shown in Fig. 2 to teach letter writing. Because learners have interacted with these papers they know how to approach and answer the questions. E3 was also observed to use samples to teach letter writing. The learners were given the samples of letters during a session, and they were given 10 min to familiarize themselves with how to write letters. D2 taught reading using extracts from other sources, such as articles from newspapers and downloads from the internet. The extract below indicates how D2 used an article extracted to teach reading skills.

Fig. 2.

English Language Past Examination Paper Used to Teach English (Source: Field work).

Extract 3: Using extracts.

T. Yes. Good. Please now be in groups of six people. [The teacher goes to his desk and takes papers].

S. [They form seven groups]

T. [He distributes papers to each group]. This group

Sitting in front here is group one; you on the left is group two, you in my right is group three, you in the middle group four; those at the

Corner on the right hand side is group five. You near the notice board is group six and seated in the corner at my left is group seven.

S [Students receive the papers]

T [Instructs]. Read the paper silently. Then you will

Answer the following questions. [The teacher writes

Questions on the blackboard].

• a)When was HIV identified?
• b)What are the advantages of testing?
• c)What are the wrong ideas about HIV/AIDS?
• d)What is the meaning of HIV/AIDS?
• e)How is HIV/AIDs spread?
• f)What are the symptoms of AIDS?
• g)How can HIV/AIDS be prevented?

The data revealed that teachers extracted some articles from newspapers and used them to teach reading skills. Students had to read the articles and answer the questions provided on the passages read. However, extracts are only used by a few teachers in English classes.

4.1.2. Handwritten materials

The analysis from classroom observation shows that teachers used handwritten materials, mostly prepared by the teachers themselves They prepared their lesson notes from supplementary books, which included diagrams and pictures drawn on manila sheets or blackboard, as described below.

4.1.2.1. Diagrams drawn on manila sheets or blackboard and lesson notes

The data show that diagrams drawn on manila sheets were used as teaching-learning materials in the English language classes, mostly by teachers who taught writing-related skills. They used diagrams/pictures drawn on manila sheets in combination with books. For example, B1, in the first session, taught descriptive composition and used books together with a manila sheet, which had a drawing to show the structure and stages of descriptive essays on it, while B2, in the first session, taught letter writing using both examination past papers and diagrams drawn on the manila sheet to show the format of a letter.

Extract 4: Using diagrams/manila sheet.

T. So what is a formal letter, class?

S: Letter to the offices.

T. Ok. Well tried.

S. The letter for official purposes.

T. Good. Now, the official letter is different from a

Friendly letter. You remember the parts of a friendly letter?

S. [In chorus]. Yes.

T. What are they?

S: Sender's address, date.

T. What else?

S. Greetings.

T. Yes, greetings. What is other name for greeting?

S. Salutation.

T. After salutation, what next?

S. [In chorus] the main body.

T. The main body. Aahhh, this is the purpose of the letter, ok?

SS. [In chorus]. Yes.

T. Then we have the closure. Now, in an official letter there are more components than in a friendly letter. Clear?

T. [The teacher sticks the manila sheet on the blackboard with the format of an official/formal letter]

The data indicate that teachers used diagrams or pictures to teach writing skills, specifically letter writing, which were drawn either on a manila sheet and stuck on the blackboard or drawn directly on it. These materials were handwritten, prepared by the teachers themselves.

As well as diagrams, data from classroom observations show that handwritten lesson notes were used as teaching-learning materials alongside printed materials, For example, A1, D7, D8, E1 and F1 used handwritten lesson notes to teach grammar. Principally, these lesson notes were prepared by subject masters after reading either textbooks or reference books and summarizing the information planned to be taught. Generally, the data show that teachers who taught grammar also used handwritten lesson notes.

4.1.3. Persons

Data from observation show that some teachers taught narrative composition and used persons as instructional materials. In this situation, one of the participants used learners' personal stories to teach the topic, although books were also used. The extract below shows how C2 used learners’ personal stories.

Extract 5: Using Personal Stories.

T. [Now be in your groups]

SS. [Students arrange themselves in groups]

T. Now in your groups write a story of how you.

Celebrated your Eid-al-adha. I know some of you were taken

By your boyfriend/girlfriend. And I am sure you will not

Report it here. Or any other story you wish to tell us.

SS. [All of them laugh] Hahaahaa

T. You need to do this task in 15 min. The story.

Should range from 180 to 200 words.

In this extract, the teachers taught the students how to write a narrative essay using their own story, the content of the essay based on how they celebrated Eid el adha, an Islamic festival. Thereafter, learners were asked to present to the class, after the teacher had narrated his own story on how he spent his holiday. In this case, the teacher's and students' stories can be regarded as teaching and learning materials as they both facilitated the process of learning English.

5. How learners interact with instructional materials in the English language classroom

The second objective for this study was to find out how learners interact with these instructional materials during English language learning sessions. The findings show that learners interact with the materials in three major ways, namely, reading, writing and through oral questions and answers, as shown below.

5.1. Interaction through reading

Learners interact with the materials through two major ways reading them aloud and silently, as follows.

5.1.1. Reading aloud

The data in extract 1 show that learners interact with materials by reading them out loud. This is the case when teachers open a specific page and extract information for teaching and learning. Both the teacher and learners interact with the book by reading it but at different stages. For example in extract 1, A1 used the Grammar and Composition Handbook from which to extract the definition of Active voice, read it and wrote on the blackboard as: this happens when the subject of the sentence performs the action. The language learners were instructed to read the definition out loud and they did so, which was another level of interacting with the book through reading. This was realized as teachers taught grammar and by reading the materials on it aloud, they interacted with the content of the book which enhanced the learning process.

5.1.2. Reading silently

The data, such as in extract 3 as observed from D1, shows that language learners interact with instructional materials by reading them silently, following teachers’ distribution of extracts on HIV/AIDS and instructing learners to read them silently. Learners were observed being busy interacting with the materials provided by reading them silently in their groups. The act of reading was followed by answering comprehension questions written on the blackboard. Reading the materials silently created a conducive environment while the learners were busy, interacting with materials. E3 also used samples to teach letter writing. It was observed that the teacher provided samples of letters during the session on letter writing. The students were given 10 min to read the samples to familiarize themselves with how to write letters. This mode of interacting with the materials ensured active engagement in the lesson and effective interaction with the content contained in the materials.

5.2. Interaction through writing

The learners interact with the materials on writing by answering questions in writing, making notes and summarizing the information.

5.2.1. Answering examination, test, quiz or assignment questions

The data revealed that language learners interact with the materials by answering examination question in writing, as shown in extract 2 where the learners were told by A2 to write a letter as instructed in the previous year examination paper provided to each group in the class. Similarly, in extract 3, D2 instructed learners to answer questions on HIV/AIDS having provided them with a text to read. The questions were written on the blackboard that the learners had to answer. Thus, learners’ answering the questions in writing from the materials provided by the teacher is another example of learners interacting with instructional materials.

5.2.2. Listening-writing interaction

Furthermore, the data show that learners interact with the materials by listening and writing as in extract 5, which is more complicated as it involves two components, listening and writing. Firstly, learners had to listen to the “instructional materials” narrating a personal story, in this case, a member of the group, their colleague. Thereafter, they had to write a narrative essay in 15 min in 180–200 words. The main instructional material was a person who narrated how they had celebrated the Eid el adha. The way in which the learners interacted with this material was through listening and writing, which enhanced their skills in learning a language and their listening and writing abilities.

5.3. Interaction through oral questions and answers

The data indicate that learners interact with instructional materials through oral questions and answers as indicated in extracts 1 and 4. The learners were asked questions on the content found in the instructional materials. In extract 1, A1 asked questions of learners on aspects of grammar, such as passive and active, and their examples. Upon hearing the questions, the learners had look at and read the sentence on the blackboard and then answer them. The same applied in extract 4, where learners had to answer oral questions pertaining to the structure of friendly and official letters. The answers to these questions depended upon what was stuck on the blackboard as in Fig. 3. Thus, the instructional materials were blackboard and manila sheet showing friendly and official letters. The interactional manner was teachers' questions and learners’ responses, through which the learners developed the ability to analyse information and speaking skills.

Fig. 3.

Diagrams Drawn on either Blackboard or Manila Sheet(Source: Field work).

6. Reason for the choice of the materials used

The third objective for this study was to examine why English language teachers choose to use these materials during the instruction and learning session. The data from the interviews with teachers indicate that they chose and used various teaching and learning materials for a number of reasons, as indicated below.

6.1. Books are the most available teaching-learning materials

The participating teachers explained that they largely depend on books to teach English because they are the only ones available in abundance in the library, and so they are forced to use them. In this regard, A1 said “Most of the time I use textbooks [to teach] as we have a lot of them in the library”. Further, during the interview, D1 added:

Our environment in Tanzania forces us to do so. We have to use what is at our disposal. Books are available in abundance.

It is evident that English language teachers use textbooks because they are the only available materials in abundance in school as reported by D1 and A1. Thus, it was reported that the learning environment in schools favours the use of books but not other materials. .

6.2. Books save time and are easy to use

It was also noted that teachers use books because they save time and are easy to use for teaching. They explained that they have many classes to teach and so do not have enough time to search for other materials like a CD or download from YouTube. Expressing this, F1 said “books save time. They are very easy to use. Why should I go and download materials or look for a CD. I have five classes. They all depend on me, where is the time?”

In the same token, D1 also said:

Searching for cartoons and drawings takes a lot of time. I may draw something as a teaching aid, related to the topic, which I display in the classroom.

The data above show that teachers do not have enough time to search for other types of materials such as CDs, cartoons, drawings or downloads from YouTube, because they have many classes to teach. The only thing they can do is to u textbooks to teach English which saves time.

6.3. No infrastructure to support the use of audio-visual aids

The teachers further explained that they choose to use books due to the lack of infrastructure which would support the use of other materials, such audio-visual aids. For example, B2 expressed her need to use other materials like audio-visual aids but the infrastructure was not supportive. She said: “No CD player in this school or projector, so what can I do? I use the materials that are available”. With regard to infrastructure in schools, D2 also said:

As you can see our school is very new. We do not have power yet. I cannot use electronic devices to teach as we do not have them. We do not even have a TV.

The data from the interviews with the participants indicate that most of the schools do not have electricity and so electronic devices such CD players, TVs and projectors cannot be used to teach the English language, which is teachers mostly depend on printed and handwritten materials.

6.4. Books are all-embracing

Some teachers stated that there was no need to search for other materials because the textbooks contained everything they needed for language teaching. One of the participants, F1 said:

Books contain everything we need for language teaching, as cartoons are contained in them. They have been drawn in the form of series and you can tell them to create a story from these pictures

It was reported that books contained every type of teaching materials needed for teaching and learning a language, as they have cartoons, pictures, grammar and comprehension questions, and provide help with writing. Therefore, according to the teachers, textbooks are the most appropriate teaching and learning materials and so there is no need to search for other materials, as everything needed for a certain topic is contained in them. However, this is a narrow mindset in the teaching profession because going beyond books and searching for audio-visual materials or extracts bring learners closer to the language in real life.

6.5. Lack of money to buy other materials

Data from the interviews show that teachers choose to use some instructional materials for economic reasons, as they do not have enough money to buy newspapers or other materials for teaching. For example D1 said “our economic situation does not allow us to use audio-visual materials, so we do not use them”. Also, E2 added this:

We do not use other materials because of our economic situation. For teaching a language, there are things we need, for example, principally we need audio-visual materials but we cannot afford them.

As with regard to the use of newspapers, A1 confirmed this:

Newspapers cost Tsh 500 or 1000. Where can I get the money to buy a newspaper for teaching every time?

The teachers seemed to appreciate the power of authentic materials like newspapers or audio-visual materials for language teaching, but they lamented that they not do have enough money to buy newspapers or electronic devices, which is why they teach using textbooks that are easily available.

The use of instructional materials in the English language classroom is summarized in Fig. 4.

Fig. 4.

The use of instructional materials in an English language classroom (Source: Author's own work).

Fig. 4 shows that there is always a reason for choosing the instructional materials to be used in the English language classroom, which also determines how learners and teachers will interact with them.

7. Discussion

This study found that the teachers greatly dependences on printed documents, specifically books, because they are all-embracing, containing everything needed for teaching and learning a language, it saves time, are easy to use and they are mostly available. In this vein, Mathew [42] asserts that there are teachers of English who completely depend on textbooks and ignore other aids or materials for the classroom. This is corroborated by Abdelwahab [43] and Salihah and Sugianto [44] that books are at the heart of the education system in any country because they are convenient by offering readily available materials and save time in lesson planning. Engman, (2021) adds that books are the materials most predominantly used, especially when teaching a second language. Various studies show that most teachers of English, either as a foreign or second language, largely depend on books as the major instructional materials, causing instructional activities to be teachers centred (Li, 2020 [16,42]; Sekiziyivu & Mugimu, 2016; 2017). Most of these books are recommended by curriculum designers to be used in various institutions [42]. This is the case among the English language teachers in secondary schools in Tanzania where they depend on books recommended by TIE, while a few teachers go beyond those recommended books and use those from outside the country, such Grammar and Composition handbook.

Full dependency on textbooks obstructs language learning because it narrows learners' perspective and they learn an artificial language (Berardo, 2006). Books have an insignificant input in learners, they lack or contain inappropriate authentic language tasks and limit teachers' creativity [17,18]. It is urged that books may be accompanied by authentic materials such as audio-visual aids (Slaouti, 2013) because they motivate the development of language skills, such as listening, comprehension, and reading. They add new vocabulary for learners, help acquisition of the language faster and learners use the language needed for real-life communication, attain confidence, become aware of the culture of the target language and speak the language better (Azri & Al-Rashdi, 2014 [45]; Richards, 2001 [46]; & Sherman 2003 [47]). However, some researchers are of the view that learners' ability to read for comprehension is not affected by the type of text, whether authentic or not, and that there is no significant difference in performance between language learners who use authentic or non-authentic materials (Azri & Al-Rashdi, 2014 [48]; Kienbaum, Russell & Welty, 1986 [49]). The use of authentic materials is pedagogically impracticable as they are not easily available and are difficult to prepare, added to which it takes a lot of time to select, edit and prepare culturally materials and introduce them to the learners (1998; [50,51]). This observation echoes this study's, whereby language teachers claimed that they do not have time to prepare other types of materials, which is why they depend on books. However, if teachers prepared their own materials, it would bring about the desired learning outcome, as they would address learners' language needs, by involving them in appropriate tasks that would lead to effective learning (Ula & Perales, 2021).

Furthermore, it was found that teachers used national examination past papers to teach English so that students became aware of the type of questions that appear in the exams and how they ought to attempt the questions. This tendency is a kind of examination-oriented education system which has some negative implications for language learning. Students might not acquire language skills appropriately as they will be only interested in passing exams. Topics which do not appear in the national examinations are unlikely to be taught and learned, leading to poor mastery of some skills especially those which do not appear in the examinations like speaking skills [52]. Examination–oriented education leads teachers to spend most of the time coaching learners to prepare them for exams, providing them with readily answered questions related to novels and written samples of letters on the topics that frequently appear in tests or exams. Learners are subjected to rote learning rather than practising speaking the language to enhance their competence and comprehension, because language-speaking skills are never tested [53,54].

Lastly, this study found that teachers do not use audio visual materials or any digital technology for teaching English because there is no supporting infrastructure. Teaching- and earning English without the use of such devices is detrimental, because they make learning the language more interesting and meaningful. Learners get a large amount of cultural information from these materials, producing a positive attitude, as they help learners to acquire the pragmatics of the language used by characters, and their use makes the process more interactive, interesting and alive (Bajrami &Ismaili 2016; [55] Yonas, 2018 [56]). While the use of technologies such as computer-assisted language learning (CALL) is common in some classrooms in the world [57], some language learners in Tanzania have never experienced learning a language in this way, which is likely to prevent the mastery of communicative competence in English.

8. Conclusion

Generally, teachers use printed and handwritten materials for teaching English. It was found that teachers solely depended on textbooks, which are regarded as non-authentic, because they do not contain the authentic language in which native English speakers communicate. Thus, the study concludes firstly that the continued dependence on textbooks, examination past papers and lesson notes is not useful for those seeking to learn English and to communicate in it, which means the ability to communicate in English will always be lacking among secondary school learners of English in Tanzania. Secondly, this study concludes that there is a tenacious need to boost the quality of instructional materials to make them more interesting to English language teachers and learners, in terms of both their form and content. Failure to improve the quality of these materials will unsurprisingly lead to a poor mastery of English language communicative competence. Improving the quality of these materials is therefore significant for attracting learners to use them as part of their English language learning.

Implications

Based on the findings, this study has theoretical and pedagogical implications. First, the use of persons through their stories as instructional materials for the teaching and learning of English has theoretical implications, as it challenges the traditional approach to instructional materials, focusing on printed materials or teacher-generated documents. This approach has excluded the role played by language teachers as materials as it has focused on the power of the materials themselves instead [58]. This calls for modification of the definition of materials by broadening it to include entities such as people, gestures, board work, the classroom environment and embodied actions [59,60]. In the same vein, Guerrettaz et al. [61] confirmed that the definition of materials needs to be more inclusive, covering physical entities, texts, environments, signs, and technologies used to enhance language learning and teaching (p. 11). Following the findings of this study where teachers used persons through their stories as instructional materials, the study adds that the definition of materials needs to be modified by including people and their actions, such as humour, laughter, sarcasm, gestures, bodily movements, reactions to stimuli like questions, speech and its supra segmental or prosodic features during instruction. Second, the use of persons has pedagogical implications, because this use has a direct impact on language learners. Through using persons, language learners genuinely interact with each other; they exchange stories and experiences and attain speaking skills from each other that helps to eliminate anxiety. In this way, language learning is enhanced. This calls for the English language teachers to integrate various instructional materials including the use of persons in the teaching and learning of English.

The study recommends to the government that teachers be trained to become creative in producing teaching and learning materials found within the locality. The government should also provide schools with the appropriate infrastructure so that electronic pedagogical devices can be used in them. The application of such devices and authentic materials would make language learning more effective, thereby improving learners’ ability to communicate.

Limitations and recommendations

This study was not without limitations. It focused on ordinary English language secondary school teachers and students in their schools. Nevertheless, other studies could use survey questionnaire and focus group discussion to involve many students to explore the instructional materials used in teaching and learning of English language in Tanzania's secondary schools In addition, this study used qualitative approach and involved 12 participating teachers. Other studies could include more teachers and use the quantitative approach.

Data availability

Data will be made available on request.

CRediT authorship contribution statement

Jafari Abdala: Methodology, Investigation, Conceptualization.

Declaration of competing interest

The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.

Appendix A. Supplementary data

The following is the Supplementary data to this article.