Culture, emotion, and cognition: Understanding the psychological dynamics of Chinese sports with emotional regulation skills and cognitive reappraisal

Abstract

This study illuminates the complex relationship between cultural orientation towards collectivism, emotional regulation skills, cognitive reappraisal ability, sports engagement, perceived coach support, and sports self-efficacy in Chinese athletes' performance satisfaction. Seven hundred and fifty athletes from Guangdong, Jiangsu, and Sichuan completed 5-point Likert scale assessments. The study employed structural equation modeling (SEM) to analyze variable connections. The results reveal significant relationships between performance satisfaction and cultural orientation towards collectivism (β = 0.35, p < 0.001), emotional regulation skills (β = 0.28, p < 0.001), cognitive reappraisal ability (β = 0.32, p < 0.01), sports engagement (β = 0.20, p < 0.05), perceived coach support (β = 0.25, p < 0.01), and self-efficacy in sports (β = 0.30, p < 0.001). These findings underscore the importance of psychological factors in shaping athlete well-being and performance satisfaction. These relationships linked the self-determination theory, social support theory, and the transactional model of stress and coping. Treatments that improve athlete self-efficacy, emotional control, and coach-athlete relationships may improve player happiness, retention, and organizational performance. These actions affect management and the economy. A supportive environment and athlete development initiatives may boost athlete well-being and performance, leading to long-term sports success and competitiveness.

1. Introduction

The area of sports psychology has recently seen a boom in studies examining the complex interactions of cultural factors, emotional states, cognitive processes, and athletic engagement [1]. This multi-dimensional paradigm illuminates athletes' psychological dynamics and the significant impact of socio-cultural factors on athletic performance and satisfaction. This evolving sector offers a unique opportunity to explore how culture impacts sports psychology via Chinese players [2]. Every community has its own culture, which helps individuals comprehend and interpret their surroundings. China is a collectivist nation with a rich cultural legacy that prioritizes family, social harmony, and communal well-being. The culture of group cohesion and joint accomplishment pervades all aspects of life, including athletics, where it proliferates. The cultural orientation of Chinese athletes towards collectivism is essential to understanding their sports experiences and performance satisfaction [3]. The fundamental component of being human is that emotions affect an athlete's performance and speed. To manage the ups and downs of competitive sports, players need excellent emotional control. These qualities include emotional awareness, comprehension, and control. The Chinese sporting environment puts much pressure on athletes to excel and meet social norms, making emotional management crucial. Chinese athletes' emotional management skills reveal their resilience, self-control, and enjoyment of sports [4].

Cognition—the brain processes behind perceiving, interpreting, and choosing—is another vital part of our research. Athletes seeking greatness might use cognitive reappraisal, a strategy for cognitive emotion management that entails reinterpreting a situation [5]. Chinese sports value tenacity, discipline, and adaptability, making mental reevaluation crucial. Researching Chinese athletes' cognitive reappraisal revealed the mental processes that enable their mental toughness and performance satisfaction [6]. Further, athletes' sports participation—how frequently, fiercely, and to what degree they play their favorite activities. China's emphasis on athletic prowess and patriotic pride shapes athletes' identities and aspirations [7]. Training and competition reflect cultural norms and society's expectations as much as individual goals. Analyzing Chinese athletes' sports participation habits may help explain how context affects their athletic experiences and enjoyment [8]. By incorporating perceived coach support as a moderator and sports self-efficacy as a mediator, the study seeks to understand better the environmental and psychological factors that affect Chinese athletes' performance satisfaction. This further sports psychology and better understand Chinese athletes' cultural and psychological elements [9].

The following research questions emerged from these discussions. First, how does China's collectivist culture affect athletes' performance satisfaction? This inquiry examines how cultural values affect athlete satisfaction. It further examines how Chinese athletes emphasize communal success and social harmony above individual successes to determine how cultural orientation influences sports performance satisfaction. Chinese sports psychology's cultural dynamics must be understood in terms of collectivist values and performance satisfaction [10]. Second, how does Chinese athletes' emotional management affect their performance satisfaction? It is related to how Chinese athletes see their emotional management and performance. Studying athletes' ability to detect, assess, and control their emotions during sports events will determine how much emotional regulation affects their performance satisfaction [11]. By analyzing performance satisfaction and emotional control, athletes' mental processes may be revealed. Thirdly, how does cognitive reappraisal impact Chinese athletes' sports participation and performance satisfaction? This issue shows that cognitive reappraisal mediates Chinese athletes' sports participation and performance satisfaction to see unpleasant circumstances positively and better understand how cognitive reappraisal reduces sports engagement's influence on performance satisfaction [12]. Understanding the cognitive mechanisms by which athletes enjoy their activities is crucial in intense sports participation. These research questions aim to understand Chinese athletes' performance satisfaction psychological processes by combining cultural, emotional, cognitive, and engagement factors. The study has three research objectives, i.e.,

• I.To examine the role of Chinese athletes' collectivist culture in influencing performance satisfaction.
• II.Compare Chinese athletes' performance satisfaction to their emotional control.
• III.Examine cognitive reappraisal ability moderates the relationship between Chinese athletes' sports participation and performance satisfaction.

This study applies cognitive reappraisal, emotional regulation, and coach assistance to collectivist Chinese culture. Unlike earlier research that isolates variables, the technique gives a complete view of how these aspects impact performance satisfaction [13,14]. This integrated perspective is unique because it better explains cultural and psychological elements' effects on athletes' performance than studies focusing on individual components [15,16]. Adding these aspects to the transactional model of stress and coping, social support theory, and self-determination theory expands the study. Most research has studied these theories separately while using an interdisciplinary approach to reveal how they affect athletic performance [17,18]. This theoretical integration help athletes' satisfaction with their performance, which is a significant advance. The findings have practical applications, which is another unique aspect. Unlike prior research that advocated psychiatric therapy for athletes [19,20], the method emphasizes the coach-athlete relationship and a friendly training environment. This all-encompassing athlete development strategy mixes psychological growth with environmental and relational improvements, making it unique.

The introduction is presented in the first section of the study. Section 2 shows the literature review. Section 3 presents materials and methods. Section 4 discusses the results. The final section concludes the study.

2. Literature review

Recognizing the complex relationship between psychological dynamics and sports performance, academics are studying cultural, emotional, and cognitive factors that affect Chinese athlete performance satisfaction. Interpreting how cultural values, notably collectivism, affect Chinese players' opinions of their performance and pleasure on the field is difficult. The need for more empirical research on the intricate relationship between cultural elements and Chinese athlete performance satisfaction worsens the problem. This research fills that gap by critically analyzing prior studies on collectivism's effects on athletes' self-perceptions, with a focus on Chinese studies.

According to studies on cultural orientation and performance satisfaction, collectivist societies like China value group cohesion, social harmony, and shared accomplishment. Zhang & Han [21] and Alizadeh et al. [22] found that collectivism is based on cultural ideals of family, interdependence, and cooperation above individual achievement. According to Ribeiro et al. [23] and Huang et al. [24], athletes from collectivist cultures may find more personal fulfillment in team victories and collective achievements due to their cultural focus on group goals and social connections. Lee [25] and Yang & Lin [26] found that collectivist civilizations put greater emphasis on interpersonal relationships and social harmony when defining success. Chinese athletes may be happier with their sports performance when they assist their team or community in winning. This is because they perceive success relationally. Cultural orientation and performance satisfaction studies suggest complexity and ambiguities. Wannewitz & Garschagen [27] and Vlasceanu et al. [28] indicate that even in collectivist communities, individuals may be distinct and not obey the norms. According to Zheng et al. [29] and Ma et al. [30], individual aims, self-construal, and situational contexts may alter the effect of cultural orientation on performance satisfaction. The specific processes and boundary conditions of this connection in the Chinese cultural context are still being studied, but current literature shows how a culture's collectivism influences athletes' performance satisfaction. Our study aims to solve this knowledge gap in sports psychology and illuminate the mental processes that make Chinese athletes happy with their results.

Based on the literature reviewed, the research hypothesis for the first objective of the study is as follows:

H1

Cultural exposure towards collectivism positively impacts performance fulfillment among Chinese athletes.

Numerous studies show that athletes' performance and health depend on emotional control. Preece et al. [31] developed the process model of emotion regulation to demonstrate the importance of multiple methods, including cognitive reappraisal and expressive suppression, in managing emotions. Nejati et al. [32] and Priya et al. [33] found that emotionally stable athletes perform better, manage pressure better, and feel better about themselves. The capacity to manage emotions affects how athletes feel about their accomplishments. Aderonmu [34] and Graf et al. [35] found that emotionally stable athletes are happier with their performance. This supports the idea that excellent emotional control may reduce stress and improve performance. However, research on emotional regulation and performance satisfaction suggests numerous challenges. Teng & Ying [36] and Pété et al. [37] found that task complexity, competitiveness, and coping methods may affect emotional regulation. Nazarudin et al. [38] and Robazza et al. [39] found that athletes, particularly under pressure, may struggle to manage their emotions, which may impair their performance satisfaction. The literature strongly suggests that emotional management talents affect athletes' performance satisfaction, but further research is needed to understand how this relationship operates in Chinese culture. This study seeks to fill that knowledge gap by examining Chinese athletes' performance satisfaction and providing data that may help develop better treatments to improve their emotional regulation and health. Based on the literature, the second study's research hypothesis is:

H2

Controlling emotions improves Chinese athletes' performance satisfaction.

Cognitive reappraisal and sports participation studies may help explain athletes' mental health and performance. Orlovsky et al. [40] found that cognitive reappraisal boosts resilience. Han et al. [41] found that cognitive reappraisal helps individuals cope with stress and maintain mental health. Engagement also affects players' performance and success on the field. Xu [42] found that completely immersed athletes enjoy, motivate, and perform better. Trainor et al. [43] also found that fully immersing oneself in sports brings intrinsic joy and fulfillment, which improves athletes' psychological well-being. However, research on cognitive reappraisal, sports participation, and performance satisfaction suggests links and complexity. Cognitive reappraisal may affect people's emotions and responses to goal-related activities, according to Kashdan & Goodman [44]. Cognitive reappraisal may reduce stress's influence on performance satisfaction, according to Kim et al. [45]. Despite significant evidence that cognitive reappraisal and sports involvement affect performance satisfaction individually, further research is needed to understand how they connect and operate in the Chinese cultural environment. The present study attempts to overcome this information gap by revealing the mental processes at play when Chinese athletes feel happy with their accomplishments. This should lead to more targeted therapies that increase players' cognitive reappraisal and sports interest. The literature evaluation yielded the following research hypothesis for the study:

H3

Critical thinking skills moderate the association between sports arrangement and performance fulfillment among Chinese athletes.

2.1. Research gap (s) and contribution of the study

A comprehensive literature review revealed many significant research gaps that allow the present study to make substantial contributions. First, there needs to be more empirical research on how Chinese athletes' cultural attitude towards collectivism impacts their performance satisfaction. Few sports psychology studies have examined how Chinese culture affects athletes' performance and satisfaction. Most have focused on Western settings [46,47]. To address that gap and contribute to the expanding corpus of cross-cultural sports psychology literature, this study provides a more detailed picture of cultural influences impacting Chinese players' performance satisfaction. Second, more studies are needed on how emotional management affects performance satisfaction in Chinese athletes. Athletes' emotional control and performance on the field have been studied extensively, but few have examined Chinese players or cultural elements that may affect this relationship [48,49]. The present study examines how the emotional regulation of talents affects performance satisfaction in Chinese culture, filling this gap and revealing the psychological mechanisms underlying athletes' subjective sports experiences. Thirdly, the effect of cognitive reappraisal capacity on Chinese athletes' sports participation and performance satisfaction is novel. Few studies have examined how cognitive reappraisal and sports engagement affect athletes' mental health and performance, notably in China [50,51]. This study seeks to bridge this knowledge gap by exploring the mental processes that make athletes happy on the field and suggesting how cognitive reappraisal might enhance sports participation's benefits on performance satisfaction.

This research bridges these information gaps to advance sports psychology. First, the study clarifies how culture affects Chinese athletes' performance satisfaction. By studying the relationship between performance pleasure and emotional control, the research illuminates the mental processes that underpin athletes' emotional responses to sporting challenges. By studying the moderating effect of cognitive reappraisal ability on the relationship between engagement with sports and performance satisfaction, the study illustrates athletes' subjective perceptions of sports. It guides the development of focused therapies to improve their happiness and contentment. In conclusion, this research seeks to solve sports psychology knowledge gaps and better understand Chinese athletes' performance satisfaction thinking processes.

2.2. Theoretical framework

Fig. 1 displays the study framework about mediator, moderator, dependent variable, and independent variable interactions. As shown in the figure, Chinese athletes' performance satisfaction is affected by their cultural orientation towards collectivism, emotional management skills, cognitive reappraisal ability, and sports engagement. The premise is that psychological well-being mediates between cultural collectivism and performance satisfaction. H1 suggests that cultural collectivism improves performance satisfaction, whereas H3 suggests that psychological well-being moderates this effect. Cognitive reappraisal and emotional management skills may mediate their effects on performance satisfaction. Hypothesis 3 further proposes that emotional regulation skills moderate the relationship between cognitive reappraisal ability and performance satisfaction, while Hypothesis 2 proposes direct positive effects. Sports may also boost performance satisfaction. This illustration suggests that the incentive to accomplish moderates the relationship between sports participation and performance enjoyment. The H3 suggests that innate motivation to achieve moderates the relationship between sports engagement and performance satisfaction.

Fig. 1.

Theoretical framework of the study.

Source: Author's extract.

3. Data and methodology

In January 2024, Chinese athletes from various sports were surveyed. To ensure a statistically valid and representative sample, individuals were selected using stratified sampling methods. Quantitative data was collected through structured questionnaires. In February 2024, the data underwent rigorous quantitative analysis.

3.1. Study population

The research population includes Chinese trainees, semi-pro, and professional athletes. The research focused on the psychological dynamics of performance satisfaction in China's cultural context. Hence, Chinese athletes were selected as the study population. China's athletes span ages, genders, socioeconomic positions, and sporting specialties. By collecting diverse athletes' perspectives, the study seeks to improve its generalizability and robustness. Sports psychologists, trainers, and coaches who work with Chinese athletes will also be part of the study population. Their insights on external factors that impact player happiness are valuable.

3.2. Study sample

The study investigated the mental well-being of Chinese athletes using a diverse sample. Athletes from Guangdong, Jiangsu, and Sichuan provinces were recruited to ensure geographic diversity and representation across a wide range of sports. This approach allowed for a comprehensive examination of the mental health of Chinese athletes nationwide. Utilizing a stratified selection method, we recruited 750 athletes out of 950 who agreed to participate after meeting the inclusion criteria. The inclusion criteria for the study were as follows:

• •All participants had to be 19 years of age or older.
• •Participants, whether recreational or professional, were required to engage in structured sports activities.
• •Participants were also required to have a minimum of one year of experience in their respective sports to ensure familiarity with competitive environments and training routines.

3.3. Sample method

The study meticulously crafted the study's questionnaire to encompass a wide array of psychological topics pertinent to the investigation. Online questionnaires were given to athletes via social media, clubs, and sports groups to collect data. On a 5-point Likert scale from “strongly disagree” to “strongly agree,” participants rated items' agreement. This tailored questionnaire assessed social orientation, emotional management, cognitive reappraisal, sports involvement, performance satisfaction, psychological well-being, and motivation to strive. Each inquiry aimed to delve into the intricacies of Chinese athletes' psychological states. By incorporating scales and indicators derived from existing literature, the study bolstered the credibility of the findings. Demographic questions included in the questionnaire aimed to provide context regarding participants' ages, genders, educational backgrounds, and sporting experiences. Every aspect of the research process was carefully orchestrated to ensure participant anonymity, confidentiality, and informed consent. These measures adhered to research ethical guidelines, safeguarding the rights and well-being of the participants.

3.4. Variables and measurement

Table 1 shows the list of variables, including dependent variable, independent variables, moderator and mediator of the study.

Table 1.

List of variables, measurement scale, and sample items.

Variable's Identity	Factors	Measurement Scale	Refer with the literature	Sample Questions
Dependent Variable	Performance Satisfaction	Sports performance anxiety scale	Smith et al. [52]	I am satisfied with my recent performance in sports.
Independent Variables	Cultural Orientation towards Collectivism	Collectivism scale	Lukwago et al. [53]	My family's harmony is important to me.
	Emotional Regulation Skills	Sports Success Scale	Mousavi & VaezMousavi [54]	I am able to manage my emotions effectively during sports competitions.
	Cognitive Reappraisal Ability	Cognitive Reappraisal Scale	Wang et al. [55]	I frequently reframe challenging situations in a positive light.
	Sports Engagement	Sports engagement scale	Guillén & Martínez-Alvarado [56]	I participate in sports activities frequently.
Mediator	Self-Efficacy	Sports self efficacy scale	Anstiss et al. [57]	I believe I have the necessary skills and abilities to succeed in my sport.
Moderator	Perceived Coach Support	Coach competence scale	Moen & Federici [58]	My coach provides me with encouragement and support during training and competitions.

3.5. Statistical analysis

Structural Equation Modeling (SEM), a powerful statistical tool, is used to study complex variable connections and test hypotheses. Researchers may examine visible and latent variables in a dataset using SEM to identify the underlying structures that drive linkages. SEM is to investigate variable correlation hypotheses using a theoretical model. The study estimates model parameters to examine how well the projected model matches the data. It further uses measurement and structural models to explain latent variable-indicator relationships. Study mediating and indirect effects, as well as direct interactions, are also viable in this approach. SEM investigates dynamic interactions between several factors, handles measurement errors, and improves measurement reliability. SEM tests involve hypotheses and evaluate multiple models to find the most plausible explanations for observable data. Overall, SEM provides a robust framework for data analysis, allowing scientists to identify hidden patterns and connections in their datasets and form intelligent conclusions about their phenomena.

3.6. Validity and reliability

Validity and reliability are essential to research to ensure that data is representative of constructs and measures are accurate. A research instrument is legitimate only if it measures its intended constructs. Construct validity checks whether the instrument captures the theoretical concept, criterion validity checks for good correlations with other construct measures, and content validity ensures that the instrument covers all construct parts. Conversely, measurements are dependable if they stay steady throughout time and under different conditions. Repeating the instrument on the same population under the same circumstances should provide identical results. Internal consistency, test-retest, and inter-rater reliability are prominent reliability measures. Establish reliability and validity to ensure research findings are reliable.

4. Results and discussion

Table 2 shows the demographics of study participants. The sample was 53 % male and 47 % female, indicating that males predominated. The age breakdown showed that 64 % of participants were 19–25. 13 % were 26–31 years old, and 5 % were beyond 31. Education was as follows: 67 % had a Bachelor's degree, 20 % had a High School diploma, and 13 % had a Master's. The participants' athletic backgrounds were 53.3 % semi-professional, 40 % professional, and 6.7 % amateur. First place was Jiangsu at 40 %, then Guangdong at 33 % and Sichuan at 27 %. Participants were scattered throughout these three provinces.

Table 2.

Demographic survey.

Demographic Variable	Number Count	%
Gender
Male	400	53 %
Female	350	47 %
Age
19–25	480	64 %
26–31	230	31 %
>31	40	5 %
Education Level
High School	150	20 %
Bachelor's Degree	500	67 %
Master's Degree	100	13 %
Sports Background
Amateur	50	6.7 %
Semi-professional	400	53.3 %
Professional	300	40 %
Province of Residence
Guangdong	250	33 %
Jiangsu	300	40 %
Sichuan	200	27 %

Source: Author's survey.

Table 3 summarizes the study's measured variables' descriptive statistics. The performance satisfaction scale's mean score of 4.25 out of 5 suggests that athletes' subjective assessments of their performance are generally positive. A standard deviation of 0.75 indicates that athletes' performance satisfaction may vary. Performance satisfaction items are significantly associated, as seen by the high Cronbach's Alpha score of 0.85, indicating excellent internal consistency reliability.

Table 3.

Descriptive statistics.

Variables	Mean	Std. Dev.	Cronbach's Alpha (α)
Performance Satisfaction (PS)	4.25	0.75	0.85
Cultural Orientation towards Collectivism (COC)	3.80	0.65	0.78
Emotional Regulation Skills (ERS)	4.10	0.70	0.82
Cognitive Reappraisal Ability (CRA)	3.90	0.60	0.75
Sports Engagement (SE)	4.40	0.80	0.84
Perceived Coach Support (PCS)	4.15	0.75	0.80
Self-Efficacy in Sports (SES)	4.30	0.70	0.84

Source: Author's estimation.

The mean cultural orientation towards collectivism score of 3.80 implies moderate support for collectivist ideas like family unity and societal harmony. The standard deviation of 0.65 suggests that individuals' cultural attitudes vary since some may embrace collectivist ideals more than others. This scale's cultural orientation questions are reliable, with a Cronbach's Alpha of 0.78. With an average skill score of 4.10, athletes indicate strong emotional control while competing. The standard deviation of 0.70 suggests that athletes may be more confident in their emotional management talents than others. With a Cronbach's Alpha of 0.82, this measure's emotional regulation questions are very consistent. In terms of cognitive reappraisal ability, athletes self-report being able to find the good in challenging situations. A standard deviation of 0.60 indicated minimal response variability in participants' cognitive reappraisal skills. Cognitive reappraisal ability items have good internal consistency reliability (Cronbach's Alpha value of 0.75), making them trustworthy. Sports engagement scores average 4.40, indicating that individuals are very interested in sports. The standard deviation of 0.80 shows that athletes report different levels of sports activity. Sports involvement elements have a high Cronbach's Alpha score of 0.87, indicating high internal consistency. The mean perceived coach support score was 4.15, indicating good coach support. Some athletes say their coaches help them more than others (standard deviation = 0.75). Due to its high internal consistency dependability (Cronbach's Alpha of 0.80), the felt coach assistance questions are dependable. Finally, with an average score of 4.30, the self-efficacy in sports measure shows that athletes trust in their own sports success. The standard deviation of 0.70 suggests that some athletes are more confident than others in their self-efficacy. Due to its high internal consistency reliability (Cronbach's Alpha of 0.84), sports self-efficacy components are rather dependable.

Table 4 shows convergent validity and model fit indicators for the study's latent constructs. Convergent validity measures how effectively construct indicators assess the same concept. The factor loadings in this table illustrate how strongly each indicator is connected to its latent construct. Convergent validity is shown by larger factor loadings representing stronger links. All indicators (PS1 to PS5) of PS have high factor loadings of 0.84–0.89, indicating a strong link between the observable variables and the underlying construct.

Table 4.

Convergent validity and model fit indices.

Constructs	Indicator Constructs	Factor Loadings	CR	CFI	RMSEA
Performance Satisfaction (PS)	PS1	0.85	0.92	0.93	0.08
	PS2	0.75
	PS3	0.88
	PS4	0.84
	PS5	0.89
Cultural Orientation towards Collectivism (COC)	COC1	0.78	0.88	0.81	0.07
	COC2	0.80
	COC3	0.75
	COC4	0.79
	COC5	0.82
Emotional Regulation Skills (ERS)	ERS1	0.82	0.90	0.92	0.06
	ERS2	0.85
	ERS3	0.88
	ERS4	0.84
	ERS5	0.87
Cognitive Reappraisal Ability (CRA)	CRA1	0.75	0.85	0.88	0.08
	CRA2	0.78
	CRA3	0.80
	CRA4	0.76
	CRA5	0.79
Sports Engagement (SE)	SE1	0.88	0.91	0.93	0.05
	SE2	0.86
	SE3	0.89
	SE4	0.87
	SE5	0.90
Perceived Coach Support (PCS)	PCS1	0.80	0.87	0.90	0.07
	PCS2	0.83
	PCS3	0.85
	PCS4	0.81
	PCS5	0.84
Self-Efficacy in Sports (SES)	SES1	0.85	0.89	0.91	0.06
	SES2	0.88
	SES3	0.86
	SES4	0.82
	SES5	0.87

Source: Author's estimate. Note: PS shows performance satisfaction, COC shows cultural orientation towards collectivism, ERS shows emotional regulation skills, CRA shows cognitive reappraisal ability, SE shows sports engagement, PCS shows perceived coach support, and SES shows self-efficacy in sports.

Composite reliability (CR) measures latent construct internal consistency dependability. If the CR value is more than 0.70, the observable variables consistently evaluate the hidden concept. This table shows strong CR values for all architectures, showing internal consistency and dependability. The values are 0.85–0.92. Model fit metrics like RMSEA and CFI assess how well the recommended measurement model matches the data. CFI values above 0.90 suggest a robust model fit, whereas RMSEA values below 0.08 imply an appropriate fit. In this study, CFI scores range from 0.88 to 0.93, indicating a good match for all constructs. The measurement model's RMSEA values, which are likewise within the permitted range of 0.05–0.08, support it. Table 5, H1 states that high COC, ERS, CRA, SE, and PS athletes are more likely to be satisfied with their performance. Organizations and sports facilities may develop a collectivist culture and teach athletes cognitive reappraisal and emotional control as an economic goal. This may improve player satisfaction, leading to improved performance and more revenue for sports organizations from engaged fans and sponsorships.

Table 5.

Hypotheses testing.

Hypotheses	Path	Estimate	p-value
H1	COC → PS	0.45	0.001
	ERS → PS	0.38	0.00
	CRA → PS	0.32	0.010
	SE → PS	0.50	0.001
H2	PES → SP	0.55	0.001
	SES → CRA	0.25	0.050
H3	PCS ← → SES	0.40	0.001
	PCS ← → PS	0.30	0.010

Source: Author's estimate. Note: PS shows performance satisfaction, COC shows cultural orientation towards collectivism, ERS shows emotional regulation skills, CRA shows cognitive reappraisal ability, SE shows sports engagement, PCS shows perceived coach support, and SES shows self-efficacy in sports.

In H2, PCS and SE are positively associated, as are SES and CRA. This suggests that athletes with stronger self-efficacy and coach support are more likely to play and have better cognitive reappraisal. Sports managers should focus on building meaningful relationships with their athletes and offering them the tools to improve their confidence and intellect [59]. This might increase team performance, player retention, and the organization's reputation, ensuring its long-term success. PCS, SES, and performance satisfaction (PS) are bidirectionally linked in Hypothesis 3. Leadership development, regular feedback, and mentoring programmes may strengthen coach-athlete relationships [60]. Enhancing these relationships may help athletes feel more confident in their skills and happier with their outcomes, creating a perfect environment for realizing their athletic potential.

Table 6 shows hierarchical regression evaluations of the research model's mediation and moderation effects, which demonstrate their managerial and economic implications. Model 1, which focuses on mediation, shows a significant positive relationship between SES and PS with a 0.40 estimate and a p-value less than 0.001. This shows that athletes who trust in themselves are happier with their outcomes. Organizations' courses and therapies may boost athletes' self-efficacy. This includes mental coaching, performance criticism, and skill training [61]. Performance satisfaction, which enhances the possibility that sports organizations will retain athletes, promotes team performance and produces more money via fan engagement and sponsorship opportunities, depends on athletes' self-efficacy [62].

Table 6.

Hierarchical regression for mediation and moderation.

Model	Predictor & Output variable	Estimate	p-value
1 (Mediator)	SES and PS	0.40	0.001
2 (Moderator)	PCS and CRA	0.25	0.050
3 (Mediation & Moderation Effect)	SES, PCS and PS	0.60	0.001

Source: Author's estimate. Note: PS shows performance satisfaction, CRA shows cognitive reappraisal ability, PCS shows perceived coach support, and SES shows self-efficacy in sports.

Model 2 demonstrates a significant interaction effect between PCS and CRA with a p-value below 0.05 and an estimate of 0.25. This effect emphasizes moderation. This suggests that perceived coach support may attenuate the influence of cognitive reappraisal ability on athlete outcomes. Coaches and sports administrators should promote healthy coach-athlete relationships and provide cognitive reappraisal skills. A supportive environment maximizes cognitive reappraisal capacity's benefits on athletic performance, well-being, and teamwork [63,64]. Model 3 reveals that mediation and moderation influence the relationship between SES, PCS, and PS. The large cumulative impact supports this. Multidimensional treatments and strategies are needed to keep athletes healthy and performing well [65]. Managers should consider internal (self-efficacy) and external (coach support) factors while optimizing athlete performance [66]. Mediation and moderation may help sports organizations survive and thrive by fostering athlete development, enjoyment, and performance.

Table 7 shows the relationships between the study model's structural components, offering a more thorough picture that can be understood in relation to related theories and with management and economic implications. The SEM research found significant coefficient values for various psychological factors that affect athletes' happiness and performance. Psychological processes affect athlete satisfaction and success, as shown by the favorable connections between ERS, CRA, and COC. These findings support cognitive appraisal theory and self-determination theory (SDT), which argue that athletes' cultural values, emotional regulation skills, and cognitive reappraisal techniques significantly impact their motivation and satisfaction [67].

Table 7.

Model evaluation by structural equations modeling.

Model Fit Indices		Value
Chi-Square		250.20
p-value		0.000
RMSEA		0.07
CFI		0.95
TLI		0.92
Parameter Estimates	Coefficient	Standard Error	p-value
PS - > COC	0.35	0.04	0.000
PS - > ERS	0.28	0.03	0.000
PS - > CRA	0.32	0.05	0.010
SE - > PCS	0.20	0.02	0.050
SES - > CRA	0.25	0.03	0.010
SES - > COC	0.30	0.04	0.000

Source: Author's estimate. Note: PS shows performance satisfaction, COC shows cultural orientation towards collectivism, ERS shows emotional regulation skills, CRA shows cognitive reappraisal ability, SE shows sports engagement, PCS shows perceived coach support, and SES shows self-efficacy in sports.

Sports engagement (SE) and perceived coach support (PCS) are strongly correlated, indicating that the coach-athlete relationship is essential for athlete engagement and devotion to training and competition. Social reinforcement theory and leadership theory reinforce this finding, emphasizing the role of supportive coaching in enhancing athlete motivation, engagement, and performance [68,69]. The relationships between SES and cognitive reappraisal ability (CRA), COC, and sports self-efficacy demonstrate athletes' complex mental health. These findings suggest that athletes with collectivist cultural attitudes and adaptive cognitive reappraisal abilities have higher self-efficacy and are happier with their performances. These results corroborate Bandura's self-efficacy theory and Lazarus and Folkman's Transactional Model of Stress and Coping, which states that persons with greater self-efficacy can manage stress and overcome barriers [70,71]. The findings affect sports groups and their fans financially. Treatments and programmes that target psychological processes that affect performance and satisfaction may enhance athletes' well-being and performance. Coach training and education courses that promote good coaching practices and psychological abilities may boost performance, athlete retention, and organizational success [72]. Coaches and sports administrators must also stress a helpful and caring environment for players' emotional and psychological development. Enhancing athletes' self-efficacy, emotional control, and cognitive reappraisal may improve team culture, cohesion, and performance over time [73].

5. Discussion

This research sheds light on the intricate relationship between Chinese athletes' cultural origins, psychological characteristics, and performance satisfaction. The relationships between performance satisfaction and other psychological characteristics reveal that athlete well-being is complex. Cultural orientation towards collectivism, emotional management, cognitive reappraisal, sport engagement, perceived coach support, and sports self-efficacy influence athletes' performance assessments. Based on the association between collectivism and performance satisfaction, athletes who value group unity and interdependence may be happier with their outcomes. This confirms prior studies showing that cultural norms and values affect athletes' health [74,75]. According to positive correlations between emotional regulation skills, cognitive reappraisal ability, and performance satisfaction, athletes with higher emotional intelligence and cognitive flexibility may be better able to handle performance pressures and stay positive. The research also demonstrates how sports participation and coach assistance might improve Chinese athletes' performance satisfaction. When they are devoted to their sport and feel supported by their coaches, athletes are happier with their performance. This emphasizes the impact of social factors like team dynamics and coach relationships on athletes' well-being [76,77]. Sports self-efficacy is positively correlated with performance satisfaction, thus athletes who believe in their ability are happier with their achievements. According to Bandura's “self-efficacy theory,” confidence in one's abilities affects motivation and performance [78]. By combining self-determination theory, social support theory, and the transactional model of stress and coping, this study provides a comprehensive explanation of athlete performance satisfaction in Chinese culture. These theoretical frameworks illuminate athlete satisfaction and have practical implications for sports organization management and athlete development.

6. Conclusions

The study's results concluded that psychological factors heavily influence Chinese athletes' performance satisfaction. Perceived coach support, cognitive reappraisal, emotional control, sports participation, self-efficacy, and cultural orientation towards collectivism affect athletes' well-being and performance satisfaction. Positive connections between psychological skills, coach-athlete interactions, and inspiring and engaging surroundings emphasize the importance of these aspects. Social support theory and self-determination theory illuminate these linkages and help explain athletes' behaviors and outcomes.

Beyond academia, the findings of this study have implications for athlete development programs, sports organizations, and society at large. According to the research, sports organizations must prioritize the health and happiness of their players. By tailoring interventions to address psychological factors influencing performance satisfaction, sports organizations can enhance athletes' well-being and performance. Mental skills training enables athletes to effectively manage performance-related stress and maintain a positive mindset during competition by regulating their emotions and employing cognitive reappraisal. Additionally, fostering an encouraging team atmosphere characterized by strong coach-athlete relationships and open communication can bolster mental resilience and overall wellness. Moreover, the research underscores the importance of culturally suitable and tailored athlete enhancement programs. Cultural orientation influences performance satisfaction, necessitating adjustments in athlete development programs. Individualist athletes may benefit from programs promoting teamwork, while collectivist athletes may thrive in environments that encourage free expression. By embracing ethnic diversity and fostering open, supportive cultures, athletic organizations can empower athletes to reach their full potential and promote holistic well-being. The findings also have implications for coach education programs, recognizing the significant role coaches play in shaping athletes' experiences and well-being. Coaches must understand the complexities of athlete mental health and growth to effectively support their players. Integrating modules on communication, emotional intelligence, and athlete-specific motivation into coach training programs can equip coaches with psychological tools to strengthen coach-athlete relationships, enhance athlete enjoyment, and optimize performance outcomes. Furthermore, the study advocates for partnership and diversity in addressing athlete health. Given the multifaceted nature of athlete happiness, collaboration among psychologists, coaches, sports scientists, and policymakers is crucial. Interdisciplinary teams can share knowledge, skills, and best practices to enhance treatment outcomes. Evidence-based policies and initiatives developed by academic, sports, and government entities can benefit athletes at all levels. Finally, the research highlights the socioeconomic impacts of athlete health. Athletes serve as role models who contribute to society's health and happiness beyond the field. Prioritizing athletes' mental health and potential can produce strong, self-reliant individuals who positively influence society. Initiatives aimed at improving athlete well-being may lead to improvements in public health, social cohesion, and civic engagement. By aligning athlete well-being with societal objectives, stakeholders can promote a culture of well-being that extends beyond athletics.

The findings of the study may have significant implications, but it is important to acknowledge certain limitations that could impact its interpretation. Drawing causal conclusions from cross-sectional data presents challenges. While there are strong correlations between psychological traits and performance satisfaction among Chinese athletes, the study does not establish the possibility of reverse causation. Future research should employ longitudinal study designs to investigate the evolution of these variables over time and their causal relationships. Longitudinal studies examining how psychological factors influence performance satisfaction longitudinally may provide a more comprehensive understanding of athlete well-being. Factors such as social desirability and athletes' mood states during assessments may influence their subjective perceptions of cultural orientation, emotional control, and sports participation, among other psychological variables. To address these limitations, future research could incorporate physiological or behavioral measures. Additionally, mixed-method approaches combining quantitative surveys with qualitative interviews or observations may offer deeper insights into athletes' psychological states and performance satisfaction.

Ethics approval statement

This study protocol was reviewed and approved by the Ethical Committee of Hefei Normal University (HNUREC) in accordance with the Declaration of Helsinki with the approval code: 0323/HNUCN.REC/0115. All the information of the participants was hidden study and the informed consent was waived from all the participants with the approval of the Ethical Committee of Hefei Normal University (HNUREC).

Funding declaration

No funding.

Data availability

Data will be made available upon reasonable request.

CRediT authorship contribution statement

Jilin Li: Writing – review & editing, Writing – original draft, Methodology. Xiaohui Jiang: Writing – review & editing, Investigation, Formal analysis. Yuning Zhou: Validation, Supervision.

Declaration of competing interest

The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.

Appendix A. Supplementary data

The following is the Supplementary data to this article: