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Gastro Hep Advances logoLink to Gastro Hep Advances
. 2023 Jul 17;2(7):971–978. doi: 10.1016/j.gastha.2023.07.002

Prevalence of Atherosclerotic Disease in Microscopic Colitis Patients

Paul Hong 1, Karolina Krawczyk 1, Rehmat U Awan 1, Raza Hasan 2, Poornima Oruganti 1, Xianzhong Ding 3, Michael Wesolowski 4, Ayokunle T Abegunde 2,
PMCID: PMC11307428  PMID: 39130767

Abstract

Background and Aims

The preponderance of microscopic colitis (MC) in females may be associated with postmenopausal increased risk of atherosclerosis. The aim of this study was to describe the prevalence of atherosclerotic diseases in adults with MC.

Methods

Retrospective observational study of patients with a diagnosis of MC or incomplete MC at our institution from 2008 to 2018. We performed a chart review and extracted data on demographics, comorbidities, medications, diagnosis, imaging, and endoscopy. Data were analyzed descriptively. Logistic regression was used to estimate the unadjusted effects of different variables on MC.

Results

Of 269 patients, 265 had a MC diagnosis; 236 (89.06%) had collagenous colitis or lymphocytic colitis; and 29 (10.94%) were diagnosed with incomplete MC. Majority were female (79.55%), ≥ 65 years (59.11%), and white (88.81%). Majority had the following risk factors for atherosclerosis, smoking (52.04%), hypertension (58.21%), and hyperlipidemia (59.5%). The prevalence of coronary artery disease (CAD), peripheral artery disease (PAD), and cerebrovascular disease (CVD) was 16.79% (12.32, 21.27), 8.58% (5.23–11.94), and 7.49% (4.33–10.65), respectively. There was no difference in the prevalence of CAD and CVD after adjusting for sex. Females with MC had reduced odds of PAD compared with males.

Conclusion

The prevalence of CAD, PAD, and CVD was 16.79%, 8.58%, and 7.49%, respectively. Similar to the general population, smoking, hypertension, and hyperlipidemia are risk factors for atherosclerosis in MC.

Keywords: Prevalence, Atherosclerosis, Microscopic, Colitis

Introduction

Microscopic colitis (MC) is an inflammatory disease of the colon that manifests as chronic watery, non-bloody diarrhea that severely impairs the quality of life of those affected.1, 2, 3 Diagnosis requires a histological analysis of the colonic mucosa as the colon will appear endoscopically normal or subtly abnormal. There are 2 subtypes of MC: lymphocytic colitis (LC) which will show >20 intraepithelial lymphocytes per 100 epithelial cells, and collagenous colitis (CC) which is characterized by a thickened subepithelial collagen band (>10 microns), with < 20 or > 20 intraepithelial lymphocytes.1, 2, 3 Variant forms which display clinical manifestations of MC but incompletely meet the diagnostic criteria have been reported and are subcategorized as incomplete CC (CCi) and incomplete LC (LCi).1, 2, 3, 4 Thus, incomplete MC (MCi) may represent different stages of disease development.1,4 The incidence of MC is higher in females but the causes of the preponderance in females are unclear.1, 2, 3, 4 Multiple epidemiological studies have identified risk factors associated with MC, notably smoking, autoimmune conditions (celiac disease [CD], thyroid disorders), and consumption of certain medications (aspirin, non steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs, statins, proton-pump inhibitors), and hormonal therapy.5, 6, 7, 8

The etiology and pathogenesis of MC is not clearly understood, but it is broadly accepted that a dysregulated immune response to changes in the gut luminal microenvironment results in chronic inflammation.5, 6, 7, 8 There is growing evidence that MC is characterized by a disordered gut microbiome resulting in a relative abundance of pro-inflammatory bacterial species such as Proteobacteria, Alistipes, and Collinsella species and reduction of Faecalibacterium prausnitzii (Ruminococcaceae).9

Studies have reported that the gut metagenome contributes to adiposity and obesity by regulating host lipid metabolism.10 The gut microbiota also produces inflammatory molecules such as lipopolysaccharide and peptidoglycan that play a role in metabolic disease and atherosclerosis.10 Therefore, we hypothesize that the preponderance of MC in females may be associated with postmenopausal increased risk of atherosclerosis and the use of medications to treat risk factors for atherosclerotic disease. The aim of this study was to describe the prevalence and risk factors for atherosclerotic diseases such as coronary artery disease (CAD), peripheral arterial disease (PAD), and cerebrovascular disease (CVD) in adults with MC in order to estimate the disease burden attributable to atherosclerosis in patients with MC.

Methods

We performed a natural language search of the pathology records at our institution from 2008 to 2018 using the search terms lymphocytic colitis and collagenous colitis. The total sample (n = 269) included patients with either a diagnosis of MC or MCi (CCi/LCi). Histological descriptions were based on hematoxylin and eosin staining, and special stains were used in borderline cases (CD3 immunohistochemical staining for LC and trichrome stain for CC). We used the original pathology reports generated by expert gastrointestinal pathologists with knowledge of MC during the study period. We retrospectively performed a chart review and extracted data on demographics, comorbidities, medication, diagnosis, imaging, endoscopy, cardiac catheterization, electrocardiogram, echocardiography, ankle brachial index, treatment, and outcomes for the total sample. Diagnosis of irritable bowel syndrome (IBS) was based on Rome IV criteria, CD was diagnosed by positive celiac serology and duodenal biopsies, thyroid and autoimmune disease were diagnosed by thyroid function tests and autoimmune serology. The study was approved by the institutional review board of Loyola University Medical Center, Maywood, Illinois.

Statistical analysis

Frequencies and percentages are reported for categorical variables. Means and standard deviations are reported for numerical variables. Frequencies and column percentages are reported to describe the bivariate relationships between categorical variables and MC diagnosis. Stratified means and standard deviations are reported for numerical variables. Univariable binary logistic regression models were used to estimate the unadjusted effects of demographics and clinical characteristics on MC diagnosis. Wald 95% confidence intervals (CIs) are reported for each odds ratio (OR) estimate, and a Type III Wald chi-square P value is reported for the overall effect of each predictor. Fisher’s exact test P values are provided where expected frequencies were < 5, and precise, reliable odds ratios could not be estimated.

Results

A total of 269 unique patients were studied, 265 of these patients had a valid, non-missing MC diagnosis. Two hundred and thirty-six patients (89.06%) were diagnosed as CC or LC, and 29 (10.94%) were diagnosed with MCi. Majority were female (79.55%), ≥ 65 years (59.11%), and white (88.81%). Majority had the following risk factors for atherosclerosis, smoking (52.04%), hypertension (58.21%), and hyperlipidemia (59.5%). The mean body mass index was 27.7, and the mean systolic blood pressure was 129.2 mmHg (Table 1). The prevalence of CAD, PAD, and CVD was 16.79% (12.32–21.27), 8.58% (5.23–11.94), and 7.49% (4.33–10.65), respectively (Table 2). The prevalence of IBS, CD, thyroid disease, and other autoimmune diseases was 10.41% (6.76–14.06), 4.46% (1.99–6.93), 24.54% (19.39–29.68), and 11.52% (7.71–15.34), respectively. We assessed the unadjusted effects of demographic and clinical characteristics on the diagnosis of MC to determine if any demographic or clinical variables were significantly associated with MC compared to MCi (Table 3). Patients 50 years or older had higher odds of MC relative to MCi compared to patients younger than 50 years (OR 4.65, 95% CI 1.94–11.15, P < .01). Patients on aspirin had higher odds of having MC relative to MCi compared to patients who are not on aspirin (OR 2.72, 95% CI 1.16, 6.37, P = .02). Patients on beta-blockers had higher odds of MC relative to MCi compared to patients not taking beta-blockers (OR 3.01, 95% CI 1.11, 8.17, P = .03). The study population was analyzed to describe the bivariate associations of age and sex on various disease outcomes (Tables 4 and 5). There was a significant association between age and CAD (P = .02) and a trend toward statistical significance for PAD (P = .05). There was no statistically significant difference in the odds of CVD, IBS, CD, thyroid disease, and other autoimmune diseases in females compared to males. The odds of PAD were 72% reduced for females compared to males (P = .01). The odds of thyroid disease were higher for females compared to males (P = .01). There was a trend toward a statistically significant difference in the odds of other autoimmune diseases in females compared to males (P = .06).

Table 1.

Demographic and Clinical Characteristics of Patients With Microscopic Colitis at Loyola University Medical Center, 2008–2018

Variable N Summary statistic
Sex, n (%) 269
 Female 214 (79.55)
 Male 55 (20.45)
Age (y), n (%) 269
 65a 159 (59.11)
 49–64 80 (29.74)
 34–48 20 (7.43)
 19–33 10 (3.72)
Age (y), n (%) 269
 > 50 235 (87.36)
 < 50 34 (12.64)
Race, n (%) 268
 Asian 4 (1.49)
 Black 10 (3.73)
 Latino 14 (5.22)
 Native American 2 (0.75)
 White 238 (88.81)
Hormonal therapy, n (%) 269
 Multiple 1 (0.37)
 Oral contraceptives 20 (7.43)
 Hormone replacement therapy 16 (5.95)
 IUD/Hormone secreting/Other 5 (1.86)
 No hormonal therapy 227 (84.39)
Hormonal therapy, n (%) 269
 Yes 42 (15.61)
 No 227 (84.39)
Smoking, n (%) 269
 Yes 140 (52.04)
 No 129 (47.96)
History of diarrhea, n (%) 269
 Yes 241 (89.59)
 No 28 (10.41)
Positive stool for pathogens, n (%) 269
 Yes 18 (6.69)
 No 251 (93.31)
Alcohol use, n (%) 269
 Yes 148 (55.02)
 No 121 (44.98)
Diabetes, n (%) 269
 Yes 53 (19.70)
 No 216 (80.30)
HLD, n (%) 269
 Yes 160 (59.48)
 No 109 (40.52)
CAD, n (%) 269
 Yes 68 (25.28)
 No 201 (74.72)
HTN, n (%) 269
 Yes 155 (57.62)
 No 114 (42.38)
IBS, n (%) 269
 Yes 28 (10.41)
 No 241 (89.59)
Thyroid disease, n (%) 269
 Yes 66 (24.54)
 No 203 (75.46)
Celiac disease, n (%) 269
 Yes 12 (4.46)
 No 257 (95.54)
Autoimmune disease, n (%)a 269
 Yes1 31 (11.52)
 No 238 (88.48)
Probiotics, n (%) 269
 Yes 76 (28.25)
 No 193 (71.75)
NSAIDs, n (%) 269
 Yes 125 (46.47)
 No 144 (53.53)
Anticonvulsants, n (%) 269
 Yes 17 (6.32)
 No 252 (93.68)
Statins, n (%) 269
 Yes 143 (53.16)
 No 126 (46.84)
PPI, n (%) 269
 Yes 111 (41.26)
 No 158 (58.74)
SSRIs, n (%) 269
 Yes 96 (35.69)
 No 173 (64.31)
Tricyclic antidepressants, n (%) 269
 Yes 26 (9.67)
 No 243 (90.33)
Aspirin, n (%) 269
 Yes 130 (48.33)
 No 139 (51.67)
Beta-blocker, n (%) 269
 Yes 99 (36.80)
 No 170 (63.20)
Plavix, n (%) 269
 Yes 33 (12.27)
 No 236 (87.73)
H2 blocker, n (%) 269
 Yes 62 (23.05)
 No 207 (76.95)
Antidiabetic, n (%) 269
 Yes 52 (19.33)
 No 217 (80.67)
Microscopic colitis, n (%) 265
 Incomplete colitis (LCi/CCi) 29 (10.94)
 Lymphocytic colitis (LC) 100 (37.74)
 Collagenous colitis (CC) 136 (51.32)
Coronary artery disease, n (%) 268
 Yes 45 (16.79)
 No 223 (83.21)
PAD, n (%) 268
 Yes 23 (8.58)
 No 245 (91.42)
Thromboembolic disease, n (%) 266
 Yes 6 (2.26)
 No 260 (97.74)
CVD, n (%) 267
 Yes 20 (7.49)
 No 247 (92.51)
Hypertension, n (%) 268
 Yes 156 (58.21)
 No 112 (41.79)
BMI, mean (SD) 266 27.69 (6.46)
Systolic blood pressure (mmHg), mean (SD) 267 129.29 (17.79)

BMI, body mass index; IUD, intrauterine device; HLD, hyperlipidemia; HTN, hypertension; NSAIDs, non steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs; PPI, proton pump inhibitor; SD, standard deviation; SSRI, selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor.

a

Autoimmune disease other than celiac and thyroid disease.

Table 2.

Prevalence of Atherosclerotic Diseases and Non-Atherosclerotic Diseases Among Patients With Microscopic Colitis

Atherosclerotic disease Prevalence (95% CI)
Coronary artery disease 16.79 (12.32, 21.27)
Peripheral artery disease 8.58 (5.23, 11.94)
Cerebrovascular disease 7.49 (4.33, 10.65)
Non-atherosclerotic disease
 Irritable bowel syndrome 10.41 (6.76, 14.06)
 Celiac disease 4.46 (1.99, 6.93)
 Thyroid disease 24.54 (19.39, 29.68)
 Other autoimmune disease 11.52 (7.71, 15.34)

Table 3.

Unadjusted Effects of Demographics and Clinical Characteristics on Microscopic Colitis Diagnosis

Variable Microscopic colitis diagnosis
OR (95% CI) P
Colitis (CC/LC) (%) Incomplete colitis (CCi/LCi) (%)
236 (89.06) 29 (10.94) - -
Sex
 Female 191 (80.93) 22 (75.86) 1.35 (0.54, 3.36) .52
 Male (REF) 45 (19.07) 7 (24.14)
Age (y)
 >50 212 (89.83) 19 (65.52) 4.65 (1.94, 11.15) <.01a
 <50 24 (10.17) 10 (34.48)
Race
 Non-white 25 (10.59) 4 (14.29) 0.71 (0.23, 2.21) .56
 White (REF) 211 (89.41) 24 (85.71)
Hormonal therapy
 Yes 35 (14.83) 7 (24.14) 0.55 (0.22, 1.38) .20
 No (REF) 201 (85.17) 22 (75.86)
 Smoking
 Yes 127 (53.81) 11 (37.93) 1.91 (0.86, 4.21) .11
 No (REF) 109 (46.19) 18 (62.07)
History of diarrhea
 Yes 211 (89.41) 26 (89.66) 0.97 (0.27, 3.45) .97
 No (REF) 25 (10.59) 3 (10.34)
Positive stool for pathogens
 Yes 17 (7.20) 1 (3.45) 2.17 (0.28, 16.96) .46
 No (REF) 219 (92.80) 28 (96.55)
Alcohol use
 Yes 134 (56.78) 12 (41.38) 1.86 (0.85, 4.07) .12
 No (REF) 102 (43.22) 17 (58.62)
Diabetes
 Yes 44 (18.64) 6 (20.69) 0.88 (0.34, 2.29) .79
 No (REF) 192 (81.36) 23 (79.31)
HLD
 Yes 144 (61.02) 13 (44.83) 1.93 (0.89, 4.19) .10
 No (REF) 92 (38.98) 16 (55.17)
CAD
 Yes 61 (25.85) 4 (13.79) 2.18 (0.73, 6.51) .16
 No (REF) 175 (74.15) 25 (86.21)
HTN
 Yes 137 (58.05) 14 (48.28) 1.48 (0.68, 3.21) .32
 No (REF) 99 (41.95) 15 (51.72)
IBS
 Yes 28 (11.86) 0 (0.00) - .05b
 No (REF) 208 (88.14) 29 (100.00)
Thyroid disease
 Yes 63 (26.69) 3 (10.34) 3.15 (0.92, 10.78) .07
 No (REF) 173 (73.31) 26 (89.66)
Celiac disease
 Yes 12 (5.08) 0 (0.00) - .37b
 No (REF) 224 (94.92) 29 (100.00)
Autoimmune disease
 Yes 27 (11.44) 4 (13.79) 0.81 (0.26, 2.50) .71
 No (REF) 209 (88.56) 25 (86.21)
Probiotics
 Yes 67 (28.39) 8 (27.59) 1.04 (0.44, 2.46) .93
 No (REF) 169 (71.61) 21 (72.41)
NSAIDs
 Yes 107 (45.34) 16 (55.17) 0.67 (0.31, 1.46) .32
 No (REF) 129 (54.66) 13 (44.83)
Anticonvulsants
 Yes 14 (5.93) 2 (6.90) 0.85 (0.18, 3.95) .84
 No (REF) 222 (94.07) 27 (93.10)
Statins
 Yes 129 (54.66) 11 (37.93) 1.97 (0.89, 4.36) .09
 No (REF) 107 (45.34) 18 (62.07)
PPI
 Yes 95 (40.25) 13 (44.83) 0.83 (0.38, 1.80) .64
 No (REF) 141 (59.75) 16 (55.17)
 No (REF) 135 (57.20) 16 (55.17)
SSRIs
 Yes 86 (36.44) 8 (27.59) 1.50 (0.64, 3.54) .35
 No (REF) 150 (63.56) 21 (72.41)
Tricyclic antidepressants
 Yes 23 (9.75) 2 (6.90) 1.46 (0.33, 6.53) .62
 No (REF) 213 (90.25) 27 (93.10)
Aspirin
 Yes 120 (50.85) 8 (27.59) 2.72 (1.16, 6.37) .02a
 No (REF) 116 (49.15) 21 (72.41)
Beta-blocker
 Yes 91 (38.56) 5 (17.24) 3.01 (1.11, 8.17) .03a
 No (REF) 145 (61.44) 24 (82.76)
Plavix
 Yes 30 (12.71) 2 (6.90) 1.97 (0.44, 8.69) .37
 No (REF) 206 (87.29) 27 (93.10)
H2 blocker
 Yes 54 (22.88) 7 (24.14) 0.93 (0.38, 2.30) .88
 No (REF) 182 (77.12) 22 (75.86)
Antidiabetic
 Yes 46 (19.49) 3 (10.34) 2.10 (0.61, 7.23) 0.24
 No (REF) 190 (80.51) 26 (89.66)
Coronary artery disease
 Yes 41 (17.45) 4 (13.79) 1.32 (0.44, 4.00) .62
 No (REF) 194 (82.55) 25 (86.21)
PAD
 Yes 20 (8.51) 3 (10.34) 0.81 (0.22, 2.90) .74
 No (REF) 215 (91.49) 26 (89.66)
Thromboembolic disease
 Yes 6 (2.58) 0 (0.00) - .99b
 No (REF) 227 (97.42) 29 (100.00)
CVD
 Yes 18 (7.69) 2 (6.90) 1.12 (0.25, 5.12) .88
 No (REF) 216 (92.31) 27 (93.10)
Hypertension
 Yes 135 (57.45) 17 (58.62) 0.95 (0.44, 2.08) .90
 No (REF) 100 (42.55) 12 (41.38)
n Mean (SD) N Mean (SD)
BMI 233 27.49 (6.45) 29 28.67 (6.12) 0.97 (0.92, 1.03) .35
Systolic blood pressure (mmHg) 234 128.92 (18.23) 29 131.62 (14.75) 0.99 (0.97, 1.01) .44

BMI, body mass index; IUD, intrauterine device; HLD, hyperlipidemia; HTN, hypertension; NSAIDs, non steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs; PPI, proton pump inhibitor; SD, standard deviation; SSRI, selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor.

a

Significant at α < 0.05.

b

Fisher's exact test P value.

Table 4.

Comparison of Atherosclerotic, Autoimmune, and Other Diseases by Age

Outcome Age (y)
OR (95% CI) P
> 50 < 50
235 (87.36) 34 (12.64) - -
CAD
 Yes 44 (18.80) 1 (2.94) - .02a,b
 No 190 (81.20) 33 (97.06)
PAD
 Yes 23 (9.83) 0 (0.00) - .05b
 No 211 (90.17) 34 (100.00)
Thromboembolic disease
 Yes 6 (2.59) 0 (0.00) - .99b
 No 226 (97.41) 34 (100.00)
CVD
 Yes 19 (8.15) 1 (2.94) - .49b
 No 214 (91.85) 33 (97.06)
IBS
 Yes 22 (9.36) 6 (17.65) 0.48 (0.18, 1.29) .15
 No 213 (90.64) 28 (82.35)
Celiac disease
 Yes 11 (4.68) 1 (2.94) 1.62 (0.20, 12.96) .65
 No 224 (95.32) 33 (97.06)
Thyroid disease
 Yes 61 (25.96) 5 (14.71) 2.03 (0.75, 5.49) .16
 No 174 (74.04) 29 (85.29)
Autoimmune diseasec
 Yes 26 (11.06) 5 (14.71) 0.72 (0.26, 2.03) .54
 No 209 (88.94) 29 (85.29)
a

Significant at α = 0.05 level.

b

Fisher’s exact test P value.

c

Autoimmune disease other than celiac and thyroid disease.

Table 5.

Comparison of Atherosclerotic and Non-Atherosclerotic Disease by Sex

Outcome Sex
OR (95% CI) P
Female Male
214 (79.55) 55 (20.45) - -
CAD
 Yes 33 (15.42) 12 (22.22) 0.64 (0.30, 1.34) .23
 No 181 (84.58) 42 (77.78)
PAD
 Yes 13 (6.07) 10 (18.52) 0.28 (0.12, 0.69) .01a
 No 201 (93.93) 44 (81.48)
Thromboembolic disease
 Yes 6 (2.83) 0 (0.00) - .60b
 No 206 (97.17) 54 (100.00)
CVD
 Yes 16 (7.51) 4 (7.41) 1.02 (0.33, 3.17) .98
 No 197 (92.49) 50 (92.59)
IBS
 Yes 24 (11.21) 4 (7.27) 1.61 (0.53, 4.85) .40
 No 190 (88.79) 51 (92.73)
Celiac disease
 Yes 10 (4.67) 2 (3.64) 1.30 (0.28, 6.11) .74
 No 204 (95.33) 53 (96.36)
Thyroid disease
 Yes 61 (28.50) 5 (9.09) 3.99 (1.52, 10.48) .01a
 No 153 (71.50) 50 (90.91)
Other autoimmune diseasec
 Yes 29 (13.55) 2 (3.64) 4.15 (0.96, 17.98) .06
 No 185 (86.45) 53 (96.36)
a

Significant at α = 0.05 level.

b

Fisher’s exact test P value.

c

Autoimmune disease other than celiac and thyroid disease.

Discussion

Atherosclerosis is a process that is largely driven by chronic inflammation. Endothelial cells of arteries modulate immune responses to perform structural, metabolic, and signaling functions to maintain the homeostasis of the vessel wall.11,12 As a consequence of long-standing pathologic inflammation, the endothelium activates inflammatory mediators which alter the normal protective behavior of vascular cells.11,12 Numerous studies have established traditional risk factors (tobacco smoking, hypercholesterolemia, and hypertension) which exacerbate the dysregulation of the vascular immune systems. Consequently, the arterial walls inappropriately proliferate via the accumulation of cholesterol and the recruitment of macrophages to the arterial wall, contributing to cardiovascular diseases and thrombotic complications.11, 12, 13 Bacteria have also been implicated as a causative agent of atherosclerosis.14

In murine models, gut microbiota has been shown to metabolize dietary lipid phosphatidylcholine to trimethylamine, which promotes atherosclerosis and inflammation. In humans, levels of choline, trimethylamine N-oxide, and betaine have been found to predict cardiovascular disease.10 A study using shotgun sequencing of the gut metagenome demonstrated that the genus Collinsella was enriched in patients with symptomatic atherosclerosis, compared to healthy controls.10 We hypothesized a potential association between atherosclerotic diseases and MC. However, our results showed that the majority of our MC patients did not have significant atherosclerotic diseases. The prevalence was 16.79%, 8.58%, and 7.49% for CAD, PAD, and CVD, respectively. This was determined despite our MC patients sharing many traditional risk factors for atherosclerosis such as age, smoking, hypertension, and hyperlipidemia. However, our study has several noteworthy observations and implications. Our study is the first to describe the prevalence and risk factors of atherosclerotic disease in MC. Second, although our study population had more females than males, there was no difference in the prevalence of CAD and CVD after adjusting for sex. Interestingly and contrary to our hypothesis, females had reduced odds of PAD compared with males. Third, our results differ from prior studies on the prevalence of IBS, CD, thyroid disease, and other autoimmune diseases in MC patients.15, 16, 17

We observed a lower prevalence of IBS and CD compared to prior studies,15,16 and a higher prevalence of thyroid disease compared to a prior study.17 Fourth, the pathologic inflammation involved in MC may exhibit a slower temporal progression in the vascular system compared to inflammatory bowel disease.13

Fifth, our study showed that age ≥50, aspirin, and beta-blockers (which can all be indicators of atherosclerotic events) were significantly associated with higher odds in MC compared to MCi. If we accept that MC is a more advanced stage than MCi, this suggests that a different phase of inflammation in MC may play a role in the manifestation of atherosclerosis. Last, our findings may alternatively imply that chronic inflammation in MC is mostly confined to the colonic tract and not systematically involved as was hypothesized. It is unclear at this stage if the prevalence of atherosclerotic diseases observed is over or underrepresented in our study population compared to age- and sex-matched controls. The results of this study will form a baseline for future studies.

A similar hypothesis was tested in a recently published matched-cohort study that investigated the risk of having major adverse cardiovascular events (MACEs) in Swedish MC patients.18 Forss et al showed that MC patients had a higher overall risk of MACEs compared to reference individuals matched on age, sex, calendar year, and county (hazard ratio 1.27 (95% CI 1.21–1.33).18 The study was notable for risk-stratifying the different components of MACEs defined as ischemic heart disease, congestive heart failure, and stroke.18 However, it must be noted that risk factors for MACEs in general are largely determined by the inherent characteristics of the investigated cohort. For instance, congestive heart failure is not always due to ischemia but can also be from alcohol or substance use, arrhythmia, amyloidosis, and viral infections; similarly, stroke events can be induced by hypertension, coagulopathy, and cardiac arrhythmias.

In contrast, our study exclusively determined the prevalence and risk factors of atherosclerotic disease in MC patients in the United States without assessing MACEs. Moreover, the etiologies of cardiovascular complications in a Swedish population may differ from the US population with regard to different risk factors (diet, lifestyles, genetics).19 A study conducted in Sweden using coronary computed tomography angiography found atherosclerosis in 42.1% of the participants without known CAD or symptoms, and significant stenosis (≥50%) in 5.2% of participants.20 Taken together, our results imply a moderate burden of atherosclerosis in MC patients; the study by Forss et al is timely and showed that MC patients are at increased risk of MACEs compared to the general population but not mortality. However, it is unclear if the higher risk of MACEs is predominantly due to atherosclerotic disease.

The strengths of our study include a detailed review and analysis of 265 histologically confirmed unique patients with verifiable source data, such as imaging, endoscopy, cardiac catheterization, electrocardiogram, echocardiography, and ankle brachial index. Limitations include the single-center retrospective design with the risk of selection bias and confounding. Multivariable logistic regression with adjustment for confounders was not performed due to sample size limitations.

Conclusion

The prevalence of CAD, PAD, and CVD in MC patients was 16.79%, 8.58%, and 7.49%, respectively. Similar to the general population, smoking, hypertension, and hyperlipidemia were risk factors for atherosclerosis in MC. Further studies will compare the prevalence of CAD, PAD, and CVD and the risk of MACEs in our study population with age- and sex-matched controls from the US general population, proper selection of control subjects such as patients with noninflammatory chronic diarrhea due to other etiologies will strengthen the quality of the future studies.

Acknowledgments:

The authors thank Ron Price and Susan Zelisko for their help with data acquisition.

Authors' Contributions:

Study concept and design: Raza Hasan, Ayokunle T. Abegunde. Acquisition of data: Paul Hong, Karolina Krawczyk, Rehmat U. Awan, Raza Hasan, Poornima Oruganti. Analysis and interpretation of data: Ayokunle T. Abegunde, Michael Wesolowski, Xianzhong Ding, Paul Hong. Drafting of the manuscript: Paul Hong, Karolina Krawczyk, Rehmat U. Awan, Poornima Oruganti. Critical revision of the manuscript for important intellectual content: Ayokunle T. Abegunde, Xianzhong Ding. Statistical analysis: Michael Wesolowski. Study supervision: Ayokunle T. Abegunde.

Footnotes

Conflicts of Interest: The authors disclose no conflicts.

Funding: The authors report no funding.

Ethical Statement: The corresponding author, on behalf of all authors, jointly and severally, certifies that their institution has approved the protocol for any investigation involving humans or animals and that all experimentation was conducted in conformity with ethical and humane principles of research.

Data Transparency Statement: The data, analytic methods, and study materials will not be made available to other researchers.

Reporting Guidelines: Helsinki Declaration and STROBE.

References

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