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International Journal of Sexual Health logoLink to International Journal of Sexual Health
. 2024 Jun 24;36(3):343–358. doi: 10.1080/19317611.2024.2364642

The Role of Social Conservatism and Family Vaues Regarding the Use of Pornography Among Romanians: A Moderated Mediation Model

Tudor-Daniel Huțul 1,✉, Adina Karner-Huțuleac 1
PMCID: PMC11323866  PMID: 39148913

Abstract

Objective

To develop the Pornography Problems Due to Moral Incongruence model by exploring social conservatism and family values regarding the use of pornography (FVUP).

Method

501 Romanian individuals, aged 18–76 (M = 22.77, SD = 9.29), 71.9% females.

Results

Social conservatism and FVUP provide a significant additional explanatory power, explaining 22.9% of the variance in the initial model. Moreover, social conservatism mediated the relationship between FVUP and moral disapproval of pornography, while religiosity moderated the relationships between FVUP and moral disapproval of pornography and between FVUP and social conservatism.

Conclusion

Social conservatism and FVUP significantly influence moral disapproval of pornography.

Keywords: Pornography, moral disapproval of pornography, social conservatism, family values regarding the use of pornography, religiosity

Introduction

Pornography is widely understood as textual, visual, or video content that is made with the primary or only intention of arousing sexual desire in the viewer or user (Willoughby & Dover, 2022). Since the accessibility of pornography has become increasingly easy in recent years (Karner-Huțuleac & Huțul, 2023; Willoughby et al., 2021), it is not surprising that some individuals have developed problematic usage patterns. Problematic pornography consumption refers to the use of such materials in inappropriate contexts, such as at the workplace or school, or the use of pornography as a maladaptive coping mechanism with stress or negative affect (Bőthe et al., 2019; Grubbs & Perry, 2019; Huțul, 2023; Karner-Huțuleac & Huțul, 2023; Kraus et al., 2015). In this line, models have been developed to explain the potential problematic behavior related to the consumption of explicit material. Among the most well-known explanatory models are “Triple-A Engine” (Cooper, 1998) – which was subsequently invalidated (Byers et al., 2004), “Internet Sex Addiction” (Young, 2008), and “Pornography Problems Due to Moral Incongruence (PPMI)” (Grubbs, Perry, Wilt, & Reid, 2019).

In the immediate aftermath of the publication of the PPMI model, it was extensively discussed (Brand et al., 2019; Fisher et al., 2019; Kraus & Sweeney, 2019; Lewczuk et al., 2020; Vaillancourt-Morel & Bergeron, 2019; Walton, 2019; Willoughby, 2019; Wright, 2019). This theoretical framework highlights the impact that moral disapproval and moral incongruence can have on self-perceived pornography-related problems and distress (psychological, relational, or spiritual). It is important to note that the term moral incongruence represents the differences between personal beliefs regarding moral disapproval of the use of pornography and the behaviors that the people display concerning pornography consumption (Grubbs & Perry, 2019; Ostrander, 2021). Thus, individuals who use pornography despite morally disapproving of it may experience moral incongruence (Huțul et al., 2023a).

In the original model, the primary predictor of moral disapproval of pornography is religiosity. Despite the fact that religiosity is a challenging term to define in the literature, the common point in the majority of descriptions is that religiosity represents adherence to the practices and/or beliefs of a church or religious institution (Rusu & Turliuc, 2011). The position of religiosity in the theoretical framework of the PPMI model is not surprising, as it is known that religiosity is robustly and strongly related to the moral disapproval of pornography consumption (Grubbs et al., 2015; Huțul et al., 2023a; Picone, 2016; Thomas, 2013; Volk et al., 2016). Moreover, it is known that religious individuals who use pornography experience a lower degree of happiness in life (Nelson et al., 2010; Patterson & Price, 2012) or shame for their use (Grubbs et al., 2010). Thus, religious individuals, as they perceive that they violate their own sexual values and norms, are more prone to report self-perceived addiction to pornography (Abell et al., 2006; Grubbs et al., 2015).

However, there has been important discussion about the fact that moral disapproval of pornography is much more complex and does not only stem from religiosity (Vaillancourt-Morel & Bergeron, 2019). Various other potential predictors of attitudes toward pornography have been proposed, including the level of conservatism and values promoted within the family regarding the use of pornography. This is because it has been postulated in the literature that perspectives on pornography use may vary, including variations based on country-specific cultural values or specific values found within families (Vaillancourt-Morel & Bergeron, 2019). Thus, from the perspective of developing the PPMI model, a literature gap that we aim to address is the exploration of these constructs as predictors of moral disapproval of pornography.

It is important to mention that we will explore these constructs as predictors of moral disapproval of pornography within the context of the Romanian population. In this regard, a series of aspects regarding cultural characteristics need to be discussed. Since 1989, the year when the communist regime collapsed, religion (especially the Orthodox religion) has played an extremely important role in both the political and social life of Romania (Turcescu & Stan, 2005). Therefore, it is not surprising that in the latest census in Romania, concluded in 2022, 13,989,584 people (73.86%) declared themselves Orthodox (Romanian National Institute of Statistics, 2024). The Orthodox Church has struggled to impose its own views on sexuality and to define, from its perspective, acceptable and unacceptable sexual behavior for society (Turcescu & Stan, 2005). Being a deeply traditional country, the prevailing morals and mentalities in Romania overwhelmingly reject discussions about any behavior within the sphere of sexuality (Turcescu & Stan, 2005). Thus, the subject of pornography use is considered taboo in Romania (Huțul, 2023; Karner-Huțuleac & Huțul, 2023), regarding which “there is no discussion” and which can even be considered morally condemnable. In this regard, it should not surprise us that even the literature on pornography consumption in Romania is extremely scarce and limited to only four studies to our knowledge (Burtăverde et al., 2021; Huțul et al., 2023a, Huțul & Karner-Huțuleac, 2023b; 2024). These, in turn, have not explored the factors contributing to the moral disapproval of pornography. Therefore, researching these aspects is important, as it can enhance the knowledge regarding pornography use in an understudied context with specific peculiarities (e.g., the predominant Orthodox religion, as is the case in Romania).

The importance of moral disapproval of pornography

It is important to note that several studies have associated moral disapproval of pornography use with negative mental health outcomes, such as depression and anxiety (Grubbs, Perry, Wilt, & Reid, 2019; Grubbs et al., 2015; Guidry et al., 2020; Huțul, 2023; Perry, 2018b). Individuals who consider the use of pornography to be immoral are at an increased risk of developing negative mental health outcomes (Grubbs et al., 2015; Perry, 2018b). Similarly, within the PPMI model, it has been posited that moral disapproval of pornography use (in the case of individuals who use pornography) can lead to experiencing feelings of moral incongruence and perceived problems associated with the use of pornography (Grubbs, Perry, Wilt, & Reid, 2019). Such an experience of moral incongruence resulting from moral disapproval can lead to the experience of psychological distress. Therefore, it is particularly important to identify as many predictors of moral disapproval as possible, in order to better understand both the feelings of self-perceived addiction and the psychological distress. Consequently, we have chosen not to include the frequency of pornography use in our proposed model, even though it has been included in more recent studies testing the PPMI model (Grubbs et al., 2020; Su et al., 2023). Thus, our focus lies on predictors of moral disapproval rather than on problematic pornography use itself. In this regard, we scrutinize moral disapproval, a specific aspect of the PPMI model, without directly testing the model itself. Furthermore, such developments could assist clinicians and psychotherapists who work with individuals experiencing such suffering, which may not necessarily be based on religious beliefs.

Social conservatism and the use of pornography

One of the most well-known definitions of conservatism states that it represents “resistance to change and the tendency to prefer safe, traditional and conventional forms of institutions and behavior” (Wilson, 2013). Conservative values can manifest in various fields, including, among others, (1) theological conservatism – when an individual’s values are based on diverse religious beliefs, attempting to increase the role of religion in public life (Petersen, 2005), (2) politic – when an individual embraces an ideology that encompasses two fundamental ideas, namely, resistance to change and a stance against equality (Jost et al., 2003b, 2003a), or (3) social – when individuals come to believe that the society we live in is built upon connections that can (and must) be upheld through adherence to traditional social values and the preservation of established institutions (Heywood, 2012); these connections involve existing traditions in society encompassing a wide range of aspects, such as traditional marriage or the family unit (Everett, 2013), extending to matters related to sexuality. We know that theological conservatism influences attitudes toward pornography (Grubbs, Perry, Wilt, & Reid, 2019; Perry, 2018a), as well as political conservatism (Perry & Whitehead, 2020). Moreover, a study has shown that higher religiosity and conservative political views are strongly correlated (MacInnis & Hodson, 2015), which could suggest that individuals with conservative political views hold similar attitudes to religious individuals regarding moral attitudes toward pornography (Hoagland, 2021). However, in the literature, much less emphasis is placed on social conservatism, which could help to develop the moral incongruence pathway of the PPMI model. First and foremost, it is noteworthy that parenthood and parental care can be associated with tendencies toward social conservatism (Kerry et al., 2022); thus, having children in a family’s life may potentially be linked to values of social conservatism, and consequently, family perceptions regarding various aspects of life can take shape in this direction. Additionally, since the 1980s, social conservatives have led anti-pornography crusades (Kipnis, 2007), which could explain aspects such as moral disapproval of pornography or negative attitudes toward pornography use. Moreover, individuals who hold conservative beliefs often encourage conventional behaviors (Peek et al., 1982), which could further influence their perspective against the use of pornography (Short et al., 2015). Moreover, it is well-established that individuals identified as socially conservative exhibit negative attitudes toward various sexual behaviors, such as the use of pornography, casual sex or having multiple partners (Brody et al., 1996; Guerra et al., 2012; Rowatt & Schmitt, 2003; Smith, 2008). In this context, we should verify whether individuals with these other types of social conservatism are also more likely to perceive their pornography use as problematic as a result.

Family values regarding the use of pornography

Family values regarding the use of pornography (FVUP) represent another potential predictor of moral disapproval that has been discussed in the literature (Vaillancourt-Morel & Bergeron, 2019). Generally, family values regarding various aspects of life are rooted in the attitudes and beliefs of parents, serving as the fundamental foundation for shaping the values of their children (Thornton & Camburn, 1987). All these values refer to the aspects endorsed by the original family, which may have influenced the subsequent beliefs of individuals during the period when their own values were being formed regarding any subject matter. These values include all conceptions of what constitutes and governs a family, and they are frequently transmitted from one generation to the next, with parents influencing the values of their offspring (Acock & Bengtson, 1978; Copen & Silverstein, 2008; Miller & Glass, 1989; Vollebergh et al., 2001). This transmission of values occurs even with religiosity, as religious individuals pass down their religiosity to their own children (Bengtson, 2017). In the context of sexual behaviors it has been shown since the end of the 1980s that, despite the fact that children generally exhibit more positive sexual attitudes and behaviors than their parents, the individual parents’ values tend to influence and appear in children’s values (Thornton & Camburn, 1987). Considering the fact that pornography use is a sexual behavior, it should not come as a surprise if pornography use is strongly linked to the values transmitted within their family of origin. Such intergenerationally transmitted values can be diverse, as the literature also discusses family values related to religiosity or sexual morality (Schneiderman & Barrera, 2009). Moreover, how people feel about and interpret their pornography consumption is heavily influenced by their moral beliefs (Droubay et al., 2021), which in turn are transmitted by the family of origin (Limone & Toto, 2022). Also, regarding men, it has been shown that the acceptance of pornography is strongly associated with sexual attitudes and values related to family formation (Carroll et al., 2008).

On another note, it is worth mentioning that if individuals live in accordance with family values, they are less likely to engage in the consumption of pornography if such behavior goes against these values (Short et al., 2015). However, if they do engage in such behavior, they are more likely to experience distress, because such values and attitudes can contribute to experiencing moral incongruence. As previously mentioned, experiencing this moral incongruence can cause psychological distress, as individuals try to minimize the cognitive dissonance between their values and their sexual behavior (Grubbs & Perry, 2019).

The moderating role of religiosity

Drawing upon the findings from the literature discussed previously (Carroll et al., 2008; Droubay et al., 2021; Limone & Toto, 2022; Schneiderman & Barrera, 2009; Thornton & Camburn, 1987; Vaillancourt-Morel & Bergeron, 2019), there exists compelling evidence supporting the association between FVUP and moral disapproval of pornography. Similarly, there are the same premises for a direct relationship between social conservatism and moral disapproval of pornography, based on the aforementioned findings from specialized literature (Brody et al., 1996; Guerra et al., 2012; Heywood, 2012; Hoagland, 2021; Kipnis, 2007; Peek et al., 1982; Rowatt & Schmitt, 2003; Short et al., 2015; Smith, 2008; Wilson, 2013). At the same time, considering that the attitudes and beliefs held by individuals within the family of origin serve as the fundamental basis for the values adopted by their children (Thornton & Camburn, 1987), we expect that social conservatism, too, is influenced by these family values. Furthermore, given the significance of parental influence and parental care, it is suggested that the values transmitted by parents can impact crucial aspects of social attitudes (Kerry & Murray, 2021; Schaller, 2018).

Religiosity, being an extremely significant variable in predicting moral disapproval of pornography (Grubbs, Perry, Wilt, & Reid, 2019; Grubbs & Perry, 2019; Hoagland et al., 2023; Huțul et al., 2023a), can play numerous roles. One of the most important and frequently studied roles is that of a moderator in various contexts. For example: (i) the negative association between explicit sexual material use and marital well-being is more prominent for individuals who attend church frequently (Doran & Price, 2014); (ii) for women with low religiosity, there is an association between explicit sexual material use and positive attitudes toward extramarital affairs (Wright, 2012); (iii) divorce proneness and pornography use are more pronounced for individuals who are religious (Perry, 2019); (iv) religiosity moderates the relationships between explicit sexual material use and relationship well-being (Willoughby & Dover, 2022); or (v) religiosity moderates the association between perceived addiction to pornography and relationship well-being (Willoughby & Dover, 2022). However, to our knowledge, there are no studies where religiosity has been considered as a moderator or mediator in the moral disapproval of pornography predicted by FVUP or social conservatism. In the context presented, as a step forward in the knowledge of the PPMI (Grubbs, Perry, Wilt, & Reid, 2019) model and the context of pornography consumption, we sought to explore moderated mediation models of the association between FVUP and moral disapproval of pornography, with religiosity as a moderator and social conservatism as a mediator. Additionally, we aimed to investigate whether religiosity moderates the relationship between FVUP and social conservatism. The overall conceptual framework for this objective is presented in Figure 1.

Figure 1.

Figure 1.

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The proposed model of moderated mediation.

The present study

This study aims to advance scientific research on the PPMI model (Grubbs, Perry, Wilt, & Reid, 2019) by extending it to a broader and more ambitious framework, as well as exploring complex relationships among a set of highly relevant constructs concerning pornography consumption: social conservatism, family values regarding pornography, moral disapproval of pornography, and religiosity. To achieve our objective, we have formulated a series of hypotheses grounded in the specialized literature, which we will detail further in the following sections.

H1: Social conservatism and family values regarding the use of pornography predict moral disapproval of pornography.

This hypothesis is formulated based on the discussion in the specialized literature regarding the fact that moral disapproval of pornography is much more complex and not solely rooted in religiosity (Vaillancourt-Morel & Bergeron, 2019). We know that attitudes toward pornography can be influenced by other forms of conservatism (Grubbs, Perry, Wilt, & Reid, 2019; Hoagland, 2021; Perry, 2018a; Perry & Whitehead, 2020). However, there is a lack of knowledge regarding social conservatism concerning moral disapproval of pornography. Regarding family values regarding the use of pornography, literature highlighting that transmitted values may pertain to religiosity or sexual morality (Schneiderman & Barrera, 2009). Since pornography use is a sexual behavior, it may also originate from these values transmitted by the family of origin, especially considering that the consumption of explicit sexual material is strongly influenced by moral beliefs (Droubay et al., 2021), which, in turn, are transmitted by family members (Limone & Toto, 2022).

H2: The relationship between family values regarding the use of pornography and moral disapproval of pornography is mediated by the social conservatism.

We will explore this hypothesis as a consequence of the fact that social conservatism can develop around family values regarding pornography, given that pornography can be perceived as a sexual behavior, which is strongly disapproved of within social conservative circles (Brody et al., 1996; Guerra et al., 2012; Rowatt & Schmitt, 2003; Smith, 2008). The reasons why family values regarding the use of pornography lead to moral disapproval of pornography can be both direct, in the sense that family members may view any sexual behavior as immoral, and consequently, pornography is seen as immoral. Additionally, the reasons can be indirect through social conservatism, as social conservatives strive to uphold existing traditions in society concerning a wide range of aspects, including traditional marriage or the family unit (Everett, 2013), extending to sexual matters.

H3: The relationship between family values regarding the use of pornography and moral disapproval of pornography is moderated by the religiosity;

This hypothesis is formulated based on several aspects. Firstly, religiosity is one of the most important variables in the specialized literature concerning the moral disapproval of pornography (Grubbs, Perry, Wilt, & Reid, 2019; Grubbs et al., 2015; Grubbs & Perry, 2019; Hoagland et al., 2023; Huțul et al., 2023a; Picone, 2016; Volk et al., 2016). Secondly, it is well-established that the fundamental basis for children’s values lies in the values of their parents (Thornton & Camburn, 1987), and these values are consistently transmitted from one generation to another. Also, religious individuals can transmit their own religiosity to their children (Bengtson, 2017). Thus, the way pornography consumption is interpreted is heavily influenced by moral beliefs (Droubay et al., 2021), which are also transmitted by the family of origin (Limone & Toto, 2022). In this regard, when there is a high level of religiosity among the adults in the family, they may pass on their religiosity to their children, along with family values regarding the use of pornography, which may be shaped based on religious beliefs, as the church morally disapproves of pornography.

H4: The relationship between family values regarding the use of pornography and social conservatism is moderated by the religiosity

Firstly, it was shown that parenthood and parental care are common precursors to social conservatism (Kerry et al., 2022). In this regard, when there are children in the family, and adults are responsible for their care, the latter tend to develop social conservatism, which includes more positive attitudes toward traditional values (Heywood, 2012), such as religion. Secondly, if pornography is perceived as immoral within the family, this can lead to the development of socially conservative views, which exhibit negative attitudes toward various sexual behaviors (such as the use of pornography), including casual sex or having multiple partners (Brody et al., 1996; Guerra et al., 2012; Rowatt & Schmitt, 2003; Smith, 2008).

Method

Participants and procedure

A total of 501 individuals participated in this research, aged 18 to 76 (M = 22.77; SD = 7.79). Out of all participants, 137 were male (27.3%), 360 were female (71.9%), and 4 were non-binary (0.08%). Regarding the studies, 316 (63.1%) of respondents completed high school without attending a higher education institution, while 185 (36.9%) completed at least a bachelor’s degree. Concerning marital status, 307 (61.3%) of participants are in a romantic relationship, while 194 (38.7%) were not in such a relationship at the time of completing the instruments. Based on the place of origin, 220 individuals come from rural areas (43.9%), and 281 come from urban areas (56.1%). The characteristics of the participants can be observed in Table 1.

Table 1.

Sample characteristics.

    N %
Gender Male 137 27.3
Female 360 71.9
Non-binary 4 .8
Level of education High school 316 63.1
Bachelor`s degree 156 31.1
Master`s degree 26 5.2
Doctoratès degree 3 .6
Marital status In a romantic relationship 307 61.3
Single 194 38.7
Place of origin Rural area 220 43.9
Urban area 281 56.1
Religious orientation Orthodox 405 80.8
Catholic 33 6.6
Protestant 13 2.6
Atheist 38 7.6
Muslim 2 .4
  I don’t want to say 10 2.0
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In this study, we utilized convenience sampling (the snowballing technique). Our questionnaire battery was administered online through Google Forms. The survey link was distributed in people groups from the most important cities in Romania (e.g., groups of residents from Bucharest, Iași, Timișoara, Cluj, Rădăuți, etc.). The selected groups were not chosen based on a specific domain (e.g., a group of students from a particular university in Bucharest or a group of art enthusiasts from Iași). The selected groups were as general as possible. Recruitment announcements for study participation were posted on Facebook groups representing various neighborhoods (e.g., the Facebook group of the Tătărași neighborhood in Iași). The announcement for participant recruitment was a general one, specifying that the research is conducted solely for academic purposes by the authors, affiliated with a university, along with the statement that individuals will not be remunerated, and participation is entirely voluntary. Additionally, at the conclusion of completing the questionnaires, participants were presented with a message inviting them, if they wished, to further distribute the research link to acquaintances and friends, in case they found the research interesting and stimulating. Furthermore, participants were provided with the contact details of the researchers to request, upon inquiry, the study results when it concludes. As a result of this selection method, the participants came from diverse socio-economic backgrounds, educational levels, and professional fields.

Before responding to our questionnaires, volunteers were required to read the informed consent regarding data protection, the possibility to withdraw from the study at any time without any problems etc. The only eligibility criterion was a minimum age of 18 at the time of completing the questionnaire. This research, which followed the 2013 Helsinki Declaration’s ethical principles, was approved by The Ethics Committee of the Faculty, where the authors are affiliated (No. 671 of 2023).

Measures

The translation process involved converting the instruments from English to Romanian using the backward method, in accordance with the recommended guidelines for translation and adaptation (Beaton et al., 2000; Hambleton & Zenisky, 2010; Maneesriwongul & Dixon, 2004). For the translation into the Romanian language, two different teams, consisting of psychologists who are specialized in studying the research variables, translated each scale into two versions. After comparing and discussing the translations, a single version was selected for each instrument. These selected versions were then backtranslated into English by a qualified professional. Any discrepancies between the back-translated and original versions were addressed and resolved through discussion, resulting in the final versions of each scale in Romanian. The back-translation technique ensured that the intellectual meaning of the original measures was preserved.

For the items related to pornography, we followed the recommendations in the literature (Kohut et al., 2020), and, as it has already been used in other studies (Grubbs et al., 2022), we defined pornography as follows: “Pornography refers to any sexually explicit films, video clips, or pictures displaying the genital area, with the intention to sexually arouse the viewer; this may be seen on the internet, in a magazine, in a book, or on television.” We opted for the definition because it has been employed in previous studies involving the Romanian population (Huțul et al., 2024; Huțul & Karner-Huțuleac, 2023b).

Moral disapproval of pornography

To measure moral disapproval of pornography, we using Grubbs’ four-item moral disapproval measure (e.g., “Viewing pornography online would trouble my conscience”) from prior works (Grubbs et al., 2018, 2020). The items were rated on a 7-point Likert scale, with 1 representing “not at all” and 7 representing “extremely.” Responses were averaged. An Alpha Cronbach of α = 0.87 was obtained. Higher scores indicated a higher moral disapproval of pornography.

Religiosity

To measure religiosity, in line with earlier research on this topic (Grubbs et al., 2020), we used 3 items (e.g., “I consider myself religious”) rated on a 7-point Likert scale, with 1 representing “strongly disagree” and 7 representing “strongly agree.” Responses were averaged. An Alpha Cronbach of α = 0.90 was obtained. Higher scores indicated a higher level of religiosity.

Social conservatism

To measure social conservatism, we used the subscale “social conservatism” from Everett’s (2013) “Social and Economic Conservatism Scale (SECS).” The subscale contains seven items or probable issues (e.g., “Abortion,” “Military and national security,” “Religion,” “Traditional marriage,” “Traditional values,” “The family unit,” and “Patriotism”) for which participants had to report whether they felt negativity or positivity on a scale of 0–100 (e.g., 10, 20, 30, etc.). The mean score for each participant was calculated, and higher mean scores were indicative of higher social conservatism. An Alpha Cronbach of α = 0.84 was obtained. Higher scores indicated a higher level of social conservatism.

Family values regarding the use of pornography

To measure this construct, we used one item: “In my family of origin, pornography was seen as fundamentally wrong/immoral.” The item was rated on a 7-point Likert scale, with 1 representing “strongly disagree” and 7 representing “strongly agree.” High scores indicate a higher level of perceiving pornography as wrong/immoral within the family of origin.

Socio-demographic variables

Participants reported their age, gender, level of education, marital status, and place of origin. Additionally, they were queried about their religious orientation using the question “How would you describe your present religious/spiritual tradition, if any?,” which has been employed in previous studies concerning the use of pornography (Bradley et al., 2016).

Overview of statistical analyses

We verified the normality of data distribution and the association between the main concepts of the research. We conducted a hierarchical linear regression to examine whether social conservatism and family values regarding pornography use predict moral disapproval of pornography, while controlling for religiosity, gender, and age. Finally, we used the SPSS PROCESS macro – Model 8 (with a 95% confidence interval and 5000 bootstrapped samples) to examine whether social conservatism mediates the relationship between family values regarding pornography use and moral disapproval of pornography, and whether religiosity moderates the relationship between family values regarding pornography use and moral disapproval of pornography. Statistical analyses were performed using the SPSS program, version 26 (George & Mallery, 2019).

Preliminary data analyses

We computed the Skewness and Kurtosis values to assess the normality of the distributions, and all the values were in the 2/-2 limit suggested by George and Mallery (2010). Statistical analyses were performed using the SPSS program, version 26 (George & Mallery, 2019).

Results

Associations among the main variables

The Pearson correlation results (Table 2) showed that there were significant and positive associations between religiosity, social conservatism, family values regarding the use of pornography, and moral disapproval.

Table 2.

Descriptive statistics and correlations among the main variables.

Variables M SD 1 2 3 4
1. Religiosity 12.45 5.53 –      
2. Social conservatism 486.08 140.12 0.61* –    
3. Family values regarding the use of pornography 4.61 2.31 0.25* 0.29* –  
4. Moral disapproval of pornography 14.10 8.22 0.54* 0.49* 0.58* –
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*

p < 0.001.

Testing for regression

To test the regression, we used hierarchical regression. In the first block, we introduced religiosity, gender, and age to control their effects, and in the second block, we introduced family values regarding the use of pornography and social conservatism, with moral disapproval of pornography as the dependent variable. According to the results obtained (Table 3), religiosity is a significant and positive predictor, while gender and age are not significant predictors. Social conservatism and family values regarding the use of pornography provide a significant additional explanatory power of 22.9% (R2change = .229; p < .001) to the initial model. Both social conservatism, B = .009; SE = .002; β = .16; p < .001, and family values regarding the use of pornography, B = 1.6; SE = .11; β = .45; p < .001, are significant predictors of moral disapproval.

Table 3.

The moral disapproval of pornography prediction model.

Variables B SE β R2 ΔR2
Block 1       0.29* 0.293*
Religiosity 0.80* 0.05 0.54*    
Gender 0.03 0.67 0.002    
Age −0.04 0.04 −0.04    
Block 2       0.52* 0.229*
Religiosity 0.48* 0.05 0.32*    
Gender −0.56 0.56 −0.03    
Age −0.04 0.03 −0.04    
Family values regarding the use of pornography 1.60* 0.11 0.45*    
Social conservatism 0.009* 0.002 0.16*    
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*

p < 0.001.

Testing for moderated mediation

We used the PROCESS macro in SPSS 26 – Model 8 (Hayes, 2017) to investigate the potential mediating role of social conservatism on the relationship between family values regarding the use of pornography and moral disapproval of pornography, as well as the possible moderating effect of religiosity on the relationships between family values regarding the use of pornography and moral disapproval of pornography, and family values regarding the use of pornography and social conservatism.

The direct effect of family values regarding the use of pornography on moral disapproval of pornography was moderated by religiosity, as their interaction was significant (b = .08, SE = .02, p< .01). The association between family values regarding the use of pornography and moral disapproval of pornography was weaker in participants low (i.e., 1 SD below the mean) in religiosity (b = 1.21, SE = .15, p< .01) than in those with average religiosity (b = 1.65, SE = .11, p< .01), and this relationship was strongest in those high in religiosity (b = 2.08, SE = .17, p< .01). Religiosity was also found to moderate the effect of family values regarding the use of pornography on social conservatism (b = .88, SE = .38, p< .05). The association between family values regarding the use of pornography and social conservatism was significant in participants with average (b = 9.32, SE = 2.17, p< .01) and high religiosity (b = 14.17, SE = 3.14, p< .01), but not in those low in religiosity (b = 4.48, SE = 2.94, p< .01). Also, the presumed mediator in our model, i.e., social conservatism, emerging as significantly and positively associated to moral disapproval of pornography (b = .09, SE = 02, p< .01).

Furthermore, the overall mediation model of relationships between family values regarding the use of pornography, social conservatism and moral disapproval of pornography was significantly moderated by religiosity, as indicated by the index of the moderated mediation: b = 0.007; SE = 0.004; 95% CI [0.001; 0.01]. The conditional indirect effect of family values on moral disapproval of pornography through social conservatism was significant in participants was significant in participants with average religiosity, b = 0.08; SE = 0.03; 95% CI [0.03; 0.15], and in those with high religiosity, b = 0.12; SE = 0.05; 95% CI [0.04; 0.23]. Yet, this conditional indirect effect was not significant in participants low in religiosity, b = 0.04; SE = 0.03; 95% CI [−0.01; 0.11], as family values regarding the use of pornography exert weaker effects on social conservatism and moral disapproval of pornography in this group of participants (Figure 2).

Figure 2.

Figure 2.

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The moderated mediation model (Model 8) results.

Note: *p < 0.05; **p < 0.001.

Discussions

As the voices in the field intuited, moral disapproval of pornography is extremely complex and unequivocally not solely based on religiosity (Vaillancourt-Morel & Bergeron, 2019). Our results suggested that in addition to religiosity, our model, including both social conservatism and FVUP, explains a substantial proportion of moral disapproval of pornography. Our results are in line with predictions made in the literature; which correctly anticipated that the level of conservatism and values promoted within the family regarding the use of pornography can act as predictors of the moral disapproval of pornography (Vaillancourt-Morel & Bergeron, 2019). If the literature previously established only the highly significant role of religiosity related to the moral disapproval of pornography use (Grubbs et al., 2015; Picone, 2016; Volk et al., 2016), the aforementioned predictions regarding the level of conservatism and values promoted within the family regarding the use of pornography (Vaillancourt-Morel & Bergeron, 2019) being merely proposed and untested, our study empirically complements the PPMI model (Grubbs, Perry, Wilt, & Reid, 2019).

Thus, our results have highlighted that social conservatism significantly predicts moral disapproval of pornography. This result regarding moral disapproval of pornography can be explained by the way social conservatives have led anti-pornography crusades since the 1980s (Kipnis, 2007), but also by the fact that individuals with conservative beliefs often encourage conventional behaviors (Peek et al., 1982), which can interact with the perspective against the use of pornography (Short et al., 2015). In addition, these results obtained by this study can also be explained by the fact that individuals with a high level of social conservatism may have negative attitudes toward sexual behaviors (Brody et al., 1996; Guerra et al., 2012; Rowatt & Schmitt, 2003; Smith, 2008). Such deeply rooted attitudes in personal beliefs can have a long-term impact on individuals’ perspectives on sexual behaviors, regardless of their nature (including regarding the use of pornography). Our result on social conservatism complements existing knowledge in the literature, which has highlighted so far that theological conservatism (Perry, 2018a) and political conservatism (Perry & Whitehead, 2020) can influence attitudes toward pornography (and implicitly, toward its moral disapproval).

Furthermore, our study concerning FVUP has shown that these values significantly predict moral disapproval, in line with the existing literature, which has stated since the end of the 1980s about the fact that, when it comes to sexual behaviors, the values of the parents tend to influence the values and opinions of their children (Thornton & Camburn, 1987). At the same time, our findings are also supported by the fact that parents socialize their children about a wide variety of topics, including sexual behavior, and the values children learn from this socialization with their parents can influence their attitudes and consumption of pornography, because that pornography consumption is influenced by moral beliefs (Droubay et al., 2021), which are also transmitted by family members (Limone & Toto, 2022). Furthermore, our findings are supported by the fact that family-transmitted values are among the most diverse, including those related to sexual morality (Schneiderman & Barrera, 2009). Moreover, the aspects highlighted by our results can also explain the potential distress that people may feel when watching pornography, in the context where this type of behavior goes against these values (Short et al., 2015).

In terms of the moderating and mediating effect models, religiosity moderated the relationships between FVUP and moral disapproval of pornography, as well as the relationships between FVUP and social conservatism. In this regard, firstly, at all three levels of religiosity (low, moderate, and high), a higher level of FVUP leads to a higher level of moral disapproval of pornography. Thus, we observe that as individuals’ religiosity increases, FVUP have a stronger effect on moral disapproval of pornography. The result is natural, as religiosity is a crucial variable in the context of moral disapproval of pornography (Grubbs, Perry, Wilt, & Reid, 2019; Grubbs et al., 2015; Grubbs & Perry, 2019; Hoagland et al., 2023; Huțul et al., 2023a; Picone, 2016; Volk et al., 2016). Given that it is widely acknowledged that the core foundation of children’s values stems from the values (attitudes and beliefs) of their parents (Thornton & Camburn, 1987) and that family values are passed down from generation to generation, with parents exerting influence on the values of their descendants (Acock & Bengtson, 1978; Copen & Silverstein, 2008; Miller & Glass, 1989; Vollebergh et al., 2001), it is natural to expect that when parents have a high level of religiosity and they pass down religious teachings (Bengtson, 2017) along with their values regarding the use of pornography to their children, those children, in turn, at a high level of religiosity, would also morally disapprove of pornography. Secondly, among individuals with low levels of religiosity, there is no significant relationship between FVUP and social conservatism. However, at an average and at a high level of religiosity, as FVUP become more pronounced, social conservatism also becomes more pronounced. This finding is in line with the existing literature, which has demonstrated that parenthood and parental care are linked to the development of social conservatism (Kerry et al., 2022). Thus, when individuals start a family and have children, they may tend to develop social conservatism, which encompasses a greater positive inclination toward traditional values (Heywood, 2012), such as religion. Moreover, the presence of religiosity as a moderator in the relationship between family values and social conservatism is not surprising, given that religious individuals may be more inclined to adopt FVUP and, consequently, exhibit a form of social conservatism in this context. Thirdly, the mediation of social conservatism in the relationship between FVUP and moral disapproval of pornography can be explained by the fact that, as discussed earlier, when a family holds negative values regarding pornography and deems it immoral, they are more likely to adopt conservative tendencies and hold more negative attitudes toward various sexual behaviors (such as pornography use) that individuals may adopt (Brody et al., 1996; Guerra et al., 2012; Rowatt & Schmitt, 2003; Smith, 2008).

In conclusion, it is important to acknowledge that both FVUP and social conservatism can play a significant role, particularly within the PPMI model (Grubbs, Perry, Wilt, & Reid, 2019), and more broadly in the context of pornography consumption. Regardless of subsequent approaches, we believe that these two constructs are worth considering as they have grounded our step forward.

Limitations and future directions

This study has limitations despite looking into an important but understudied subject. First, due to the cross-sectional and correlational design of the current study, causal inferences cannot be made. Secondly, family values regarding the use of pornography were measured through a single item conceptualized by us (“In my family of origin, pornography was seen as fundamentally wrong/immoral”). Researchers specialized in the conceptualization and validation of psychological instruments may consider developing a tool to assess this concept. Creating a dedicated instrument offers a more robust and comprehensive measurement of family values regarding pornography compared to a single item. Thirdly, it is important to acknowledge that our results were based on respondents from Romania. Therefore, further testing and replication of our study in other cultural contexts and on different populations from various regions of the world are necessary to validate and extend the applicability of our findings. Fourthly, our study was limited to a single age group (18+ years) and did not account for other factors that may influence the results, such as sexual orientation. Future studies could explore multiple age groups to observe how our findings hold up and should also consider various sexual orientations, as this aspect is of inclusive interest in Romania regarding pornography consumption (Huțul et al., 2024). Fifthly, our research involved a significantly higher proportion of female participants (71.9%) compared to male participants (27.3%), and non-binary individuals (0.08%). Due to this imbalance in the sample, relevant comparisons cannot be made, and future research may benefit from more balanced proportions of participants.

Theoretical and practical implications

Our results have specifically examined the component of moral disapproval from the PPMI model (Grubbs, Perry, Wilt, & Reid, 2019). Thus, we contribute to the literature on this conceptual framework by showing that social conservatism and family values regarding the use of pornography significantly contribute to an individual’s moral disapproval of pornography. Additionally, our study is the first to address the topics of social conservatism and FVUP in relation to moral disapproval of pornography and the PPMI model. At the same time, our findings contribute to the knowledge on pornography consumption both generally and specifically by examining an understudied population, that of Romania, where the vast majority of the population adheres to Orthodox Christianity.

Furthermore, by exploring the relationships between family values regarding pornography, social conservatism, and moral disapproval of pornography, and by introducing a moderated mediation model, we have contributed to the existing body of knowledge. Identifying and discussing these interconnected factors has highlighted the complex interplay between individuals’ personal belief systems, the influences provided by the family, and social norms in shaping one’s attitudes toward pornography. Thus, we aid in a better understanding of the social factors that contribute to disapproval of pornography, which can assist researchers, psychotherapists, clinicians, or other mental health workers in comprehending this model of problematic pornography use. More specifically, this pathway from the PPMI to perceived problematic use is related to social or cultural factors rather than psychopathological factors.

In essence, our findings can be helpful for mental health professionals who work with individuals that perceive their own pornography use as problematic, causing them psychological distress. Addressing social conservatism and family values in a therapeutic setting can serve as a starting point for improving symptomatology. Also, our results can be used by researchers as a starting point for future works addressing moral disapproval of pornography, the PPMI model or other models that focus on moral disapproval of pornography and/or problematic pornography consumption.

Funding Statement

Not applicable.

Authors’ contributions

Tudor-Daniel Huțul and Adina Karner-Huțuleac both equally contributed to conceptualization, methodology, supervision, writing-original draft, writing-review and editing and data curation

Compliance with Ethical Standards

This study’s protocol was designed in concordance with ethical requirements specific to the Faculty of Psychology and Educational Sciences, “Alexandru Ioan Cuza” University (Iași, Romania), before beginning the study and supervised by Tudor-Daniel Huțul. All participants voluntarily participated in the study and gave written informed consent following the Declaration of Helsinki and the national laws from Romania regarding ethical conduct in scientific research, technological development, and innovation. No animal studies are presented in this manuscript.

Disclosure statement

The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have influenced the work reported in this paper. The authors declare no financial interests/personal relationships, which may be considered as potential competing interests.

Ethical approval

The study was approved by the Ethics Committee of the Faculty of Psychology and Educational Sciences, “Alexandru Ioan Cuza” University, Iași, Romania, Approval No. 671 of 2023, before beginning the study and supervised by Tudor-Daniel Huțul.

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