An updated and comprehensive review of the morphology, ethnomedicinal uses, phytochemistry, and pharmacological activity of Aster tataricus L. f

Abstract

Ethnopharmacological relevance

Aster tataricus L.f., an extensively used herb in traditional Chinese medicine for more than 2000 years, is known as “Zi wan” or “Fan huncao”. Its dried root and rhizome hold great promise in the treatment of cough, asthma, tumor, inflammation, etc.

Aim of the study: This literature review summarizes the morphology characteristics, ethnopharmacological use, phytochemical properties, pharmacological effects, and potential applications of Aster tataricus. Furthermore, this review will discuss the future research trends and development prospects of this plant.

Materials and methods

Using “Aster tataricus L.f.”, “Traditional medicinal usage”, “Phytochemistry”, “Pharmacological effects” as the keywords and gathered relevant data on Aster tataricus L.f. using electronic databases (Elsevier, PubMed, ACS, CNKI, Google Scholar, Baidu Scholar, Web of Science), relevant books, and classic literature about Chinese herb.

Result

A total of 186 compounds have been isolated and identified from Aster tataricus, including terpenes, organic acids, peptides, and flavonoids. And Aster tataricus has been widely used as a natural cough suppressant and has anti-oxidative, anti-inflammatory, anti-depressive, and anti-tumor effects. In addition, Aster tataricus has also been reported to have damaging effects on the liver as well as other toxicities were discussed in this review.

Conclusions

Aster tataricus is an ancient herbal medicine with a broad spectrum of pharmaco logical activities that has been used for thousands of years in China, and has shown remarkable effectiveness in the treatment of various diseases, especially cough, asthma, inflammation. Although its rich chemical constituents have various pharmacological activities, the underlying mechanisms, as well as its toxicity and safety, remains unclear and warrant further investigation.

Highlights

• •This review summarized the botanical characteristics, chemical composition, and therapeutic effects of Aster tataricus based on traditional literature and modern evidence.
• •We reviewed domestic and international studies on the chemical composition of aster and summarized nearly 200 of its chemical constituents, and
• •provided a scientific basis for further research and exploitation of medicinal plants to develop more effective therapeutic drugs.

Abbreviations

TCM

traditional Chinese medicine

UHPLC-Q-TOF-MS

Ultra-high performance liquid chromatography coupled with triple quadrupole mass spectrometry

HPLC-Q-TOF/MS

High-performance liquid chromatography quadrupole time-of-flight mass spectrometry

HPLC-MS

High performance liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry

Ovalbumin

OVA

1,1-Diphenyl-2-picrylhydrazyl radical

DPPH Median lethal dose: LD₅₀

1. Introduction

Aster tataricus L. f. (Aster tataricus), also named Qing wan, Fan huncao, and Guan gongxu, is a perennial herb in the Asteraceae family, and it is widely cultivated in wetlands on shady slopes of low mountains, hilltops, low-mountain grasslands, and marshes at an altitude of 400–2000 m [1]. The medicinal use of its dried root and rhizome was first reported in Shennong Materia Medica [[2], [3], [4]]. Chinese Materia Medica states that Aster tataricus is widely distributed in Anhui, Hebei, Neimenggu, northeast China, Korea, and Japan.

Aster tataricus has been used in traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) for more than 2000 years. It is acrid and bitter in flavor, warm, and acts on the lung channels. It has remarkable therapeutic effects, especially cough relief and phlegm elimination [5]. According to folklore, Aster tataricus is usually brewed or decocted and administered orally to treat cough and asthma (Runfeizhike and Huatan) [6,7]. The active ingredients of medicinal plants are the material basis for the treatment and prevention of diseases and may guide the development of new and more effective therapeutic drugs. Phytochemical studies have shown that Aster tataricus is rich in various ingredients, encompassing terpenes, flavonoids, peptides, organic acids, and other compounds [[8], [9], [10], [11]]. With increasing interest in research on the pharmacological activities of Aster tataricus, researchers have found it have potent pharmacological activities, such as anti-tussive, anti-asthmatic, anti-tumor, anti-inflammatory, anti-bacterial, anti-oxidant, and anti-depressant activities [5,[12], [13], [14]]. To date, Aster tataricus has been widely used in various proprietary Chinese medications. This review summarizes the morphology characteristics, phytochemical composition, pharmacological effects, and medicinal applications of Aster tataricus, providing a reference for further research and development.

2. Botany

Aster tataricus, a member of the Asteraceae family, is distributed worldwide, especially in China, Korea, and Japan [15]. It was first reported in the Han Dynasty, and its name has been changed over time (Table 1). Aster tataricus is usually harvested in spring and autumn. Subsequently, the rhizomes (commonly called “Mugen”) and sediments are removed, and the roots are dried in the sun, either braided or unbraided.

Table 1.

Names of Aster tataricus in different literary works.

Dynasty	Title	Name
Wei and Jin dynasties	Wupu Bencao	Qing wan
	Records of Famous Doctors	Zi qian, Qing wan
Southern Dynasty	Notes on the Materia Medica	Zi wan, Qing wan
Tang Dynasty	Xin Xiu Ben Cao	Zi qian, Qing wan
	Qianjin Yifang	Zi qian, Qing wan
Song Dynasty	Dou Men Fang	Fan huncao, Ye qianniu
Qing Dynasty	Ben Cao Shu	Zi wanrong
	Compendium of Materia Medica	Qing wan, Zi wan, Fan huncao, Ye qianniu
	Textual Research on Reality and Titles of Plants	Guan gongxu

According to Chinese Pharmacopoeia (2020 version), the rhizome of Aster tataricus exists as irregular lumps of varying sizes, with the stem and leaf stumps at the top, and its texture is slightly hard. According to Illustrations of Chinese Medicinal Plants and Colored Atlas of Chinese Folk Herbs, the stems of Aster tataricus (Fig. 1) grow erect to a height of approximately 1.5–2 m, are slightly branched at the upper end, and have sparsely distributed short bristles. Roots and foliage lush, withered at flowering time, and the leaves are long, elliptical, and obtuse-headed and sparsely setulose on both surfaces, with the base tapered or winged. The stalk is slender, and the margin is serrated. Capitula on branchlets with a dozen or more flowers are usually cephalic, and the stems are 2.5–3.3-cm long. The pedicels are long and densely setose. The involucre is hemispherical, with a length of 7 mm. The bracteolates are lanceolate, short, and slightly hairy and are arranged in whorls of three, with scarious margins. The corolla is purple, with a length of 1.6–1.7 cm and a width of 0.3–0.35 cm. The corolla tube is cylindrical with a yellow inner surface. The fruit is small and slightly compressed, with a length of 3 mm, and has white crown hair.

Fig. 1.

Plant morphology of Aster tataricus.

3. Ethnopharmacology

Since ancient times, scholars have been attempting to maximize the use of natural resources. The use of TCM in preventing and treating diseases has remarkably improved human health. Since the first mention of Aster tataricus in “Shen Nong Ben Cao Jing’’, its therapeutic effects on cough and asthma have been reported in various medical books. According to “Ming Yi Bie Lu”, Aster tataricus can be used to treat cough with blood in phlegm. Similar therapeutic effects of Aster tataricus have been mentioned in “Xin Xiu Ben Cao”, “Qian Jin Yi Fang”, “Zheng Lei Ben Cao”, and “Yao Jian”. Some traditional medical books, such as “Bei Ji Qian Jin Yao Fang”, “Ben Cao Cong Xin”, and “Zhong Hua Ben Cao”, have mentioned that Aster tataricus can be used to treat dyspepsia; however, this information is not found in modern books. In addition, “Dou Men Fang”, “Ben Cao Shu”, and “De Pei Ben Cao” have documented the use of Aster tataricus in the treatment of sore throats. The effects and contraindications of Aster tataricus reported in different literary works in different time periods are summarized in Table 2.

Table 2.

Ethnopharmacology of Aster tataricus throughout the Chinese dynasties.

Dynasty	Efficacy	Contraindications	Title
Qin and Han dynasties	Relieves cough, increases Qi, regulates cold and heat in the chest, removes parasites and toxins, and tranquilizes the five viscera		Shen Nong Ben Cao Jing
Northern and Southern dynasties	Treats pulmonary abscess, weakness caused by the “five Lao”, and pediatric convulsions	Not to be combined with Tian Xiong, Qu Mai, Lei Puan, Yuan Zhi, Fen Yin, and herba artemisias capillaris	Ming Yi Bie Lu
Tang dynasty	Relieves cough; increases Qi; regulates cold and heat in the chest; removes parasites and toxins; tranquilizes the five viscera; and treats pulmonary abscess, weakness caused by the “five Lao”, and pediatric convulsions	Not to be combined with Tian Xiong, Qu Mai, Lei Puan, Yuan Zhi, Gao ben, Fen Yin, and herba artemisias capillaris	Xin Xiu Ben Cao
Song dynasty	Shi Zhu and fever due to deficiency	Not to be combined with Tian Xiong, Qu Mai, Lei Puan, Yuan Zhi, Gao ben, Fen Yin, and Artemisia Chen	Jia You Ben Cao
Ming dynasty	Treats shortness of breath and cough	Not to be combined with Tian Xiong, Qu Mai, Lei Puan, Yuan Zhi, Gao ben, Fen Yin, and herba artemisias capillaris	Bencao Pinhui Jingyao
Qing dynasty	Protects the lungs and treats vomiting blood and cough with blood in phlegm	An appropriate amount to be used in patients with yin deficiency and lung-heat syndrome	Ben Cao Hai Li
	Regulates cold and heat in the chest, relieves cough, increases Qi, and treats bloody sputum and pediatric convulsions	Not to be combined with Tian Xiong, Qu Mai, Yuan Zhi, Gao ben, and herba artemisias capillaris	Ben Cao Bei Yao
	Relieves cough due to exhaustion and treats hematochezia	Not to be combined with Tian Xiong, Qu Mai, Yuan Zhi, Gao ben, and herba artemisias capillaris	Ben Cao Qiu Zhen
1959	Regulates cold and heat in the chest and relieves cough, vomiting blood, breathlessness, and pharyngitis	Not suitable for patients with heat in the lungs	Zhong Yao Zhi
1999	Reduces phlegm, suppresses cough, and treats bacterial infections	Saponins derived from Aster tataricus have strong hemolytic effects and their crude forms are not suitable for intravenous injection; the volatile oil of Aster tataricus is more toxic than that of Ligularia fischeri	Chinese Materia Medica
2020	Relieves cough with excessive phlegm and wheezing, chronic cough, and coughing up blood with exertion		Chinese pharmacopoeia

To enhance its therapeutic efficacy and reduce its side effects, Aster tataricus was traditionally processed using refined honey, vinegar and wine, processing children's feces and ginger. However, modern processing methods mainly involve the use of honey and bran. The standard of pharmaceutical concoctions varies across regions. The main purpose of processing Aster tataricus is to reduce its coldness and enhance its therapeutic effects. Aster tataricus can clear heat and phlegm, thereby relieving cough. When consumed raw, it can Qingfei and has the effect of clearing heat and resolving phlegm, but it is only suitable for symptoms of obstructed lung qi and coughing up a lot of phlegm. Roasting Aster tataricus with honey increases its sweetness and enhances its effectiveness in moistening the lungs and relieving cough [2].

Aster tataricus can be used as not only a medication but also an ingredient in food products within a limited dose range. In particular, it has been used in tea, porridge, and soup. Ancient medical records show that Aster tataricus can be combined with other traditional Chinese herbs to treat asthma, cough, constipation, impotence, and carbuncles [16]. Shegan Mahuang Soup, which comprises 41.4-g Aster tataricus, Ephedra, and Belamcanda chinensis, is used to relieve phlegm, reduce cold, and treat lung and throat infections. Ze Qi Soup, which comprises 69-g Aster tataricus and Euphorbia helioscopia, is mainly used to treat occasional wheezing and coughing, body swelling, and restlessness. Bu Fei Soup, which comprises 3.1-g Aster tataricus and Sangbaipi, is used to treat cough and asthma due to lung deficiency. Zi Wan Soup, which comprises 13.8-g Aster tataricus, is effective in relieving upper airway obstruction [11].

With a long history of medicinal use, Aster tataricus has demonstrated good efficacy in the treatment of many complicated and recurrent diseases. It is a widely used source of natural bioactive components in TCM. In-depth research into the pharmacological effects of Aster tataricus is ongoing.

4. Phytochemistry

With the development of extraction and separation methods, scholars have identified several chemical constituents of Aster tataricus. To date, approximately 200 chemical compounds, including 73 terpenes, 34 flavonoids, 26 organic acids, 21 peptides, and 32 other compounds, have been isolated and identified from Aster tataricus, with terpenes being the main active components. The proportions of all chemical constituents are shown in Fig. 2, and their specific details are summarized in Table 3.

Fig. 2.

Proportion of each chemical constituent in Aster tataricus.

Table 3.

Specific details of the chemical constituents isolated from Aster tataricus.

No.	Compounds	MF	Resource	Extraction methods	References
Terpenes (1–73)
1	Shion-22-methoxy-20(21)-en-3-one	C31H52O2	Roots and rhizomes	95 % EtOH	[17]
2	Shion-22(30)-en-3,2,1-dione	C30H48O2	Roots and rhizomes	95 % EtOH	[17]
3	Shion-21-hydroxyl-22(30)-en-3-one	C30H50O2	Roots and rhizomes	95 % EtOH	[17]
4	Shion-22-methoxy-20(21)-en-3-ol	C31H54O2	Roots and rhizomes	95 % EtOH	[17]
5	Shione	C30H50O	Roots and rhizomes	95 % EtOH	[17]
6	Epishionol	C30H52O	Roots and rhizomes	95 % EtOH	[17]
7	Friedelane	C30H52	Roots and rhizomes	95 % EtOH	[17]
8	Epifriedelanol	C30H52O	Roots and rhizomes	95 % EtOH	[17]
9	24-Ethyl-5a-cholesta-7,22(E)-dien-3-one	C34H56O	Roots and rhizomes	95 % EtOH	[17]
10	Xylonenone	C30H50O	Whole plant	MeOH	[18]
11	Friedelan-4-α-methyl-3β-OH	C30H52O	Whole plant	MeOH	[18]
12	β-Sitosterol	C29H50O	Whole plant	MeOH	[18]
13	Stigmasterol	C29H48O	Whole plant	MeOH	[18]
14	Campesterol	C28H48O	Whole plant	MeOH	[18]
15	Epifriedelanol	C29H50O	Roots and rhizomes	95 % EtOH	[19]
16	α-Spinach sterols	C29H48O	Roots and rhizomes	95 % EtOH	[19]
17	Betulin	C27H46O2	Roots and rhizomes	95 % EtOH	[19]
18	Oleanolic acid	C30H48O3	Roots and rhizomes	95 % EtOH	[19]
19	Shionoside A	C21H36O10	Roots	MeOH	[20]
20	Shionoside B	C22H38O10	Roots	MeOH	[20]
21	Epifriedelinol	C30H52O	Roots	MeOH	[20]
22	Astertarone A	C30H50O	Roots	MeOH	[21]
23	Shionone	C30H50O	Roots and rhizomes	MeOH	[21]
24	Friedelin	C30H50O	Roots and rhizomes	MeOH	[21]
25	Astertarone B	C31H52O2	Roots	MeOH	[21]
26	Oleanic acid	C31H50O2	Roots and rhizomes	Methanol	[22]
27	Taraxerol	C30H48O	Roots and rhizomes	Methanol	[22]
28	Betulin	C30H52O2	Roots and rhizomes	Methanol	[22]
29	Taraxasterol	C30H50O	Roots and rhizomes	Methanol	[22]
30	Beta-amyrin	C30H50O	Roots and rhizomes	Methanol	[22]
31	Aster shionone A	C26H42O3	Roots and rhizomes	Methanol	[23]
32	Aster shionone B	C29H46O2	Roots and rhizomes	Methanol	[23]
33	Aster shionone C	C27H44O3	Roots and rhizomes	Methanol	[23]
34	Aster shionone D	C27H46O	Roots and rhizomes	Methanol	[23]
35	Aster shionone E	C27H42O3	Roots and rhizomes	Methanol	[23]
36	Aster shionone F	C27H42O2	Roots and rhizomes	Methanol	[23]
37	Friedelan-3-ol	C30H52O2	Roots	MeOH	[24]
38	Echinocystic acid	C30H48O4	Roots and rhizomes	Methanol	[22]
39	Betulinic acid	C30H48O3	Roots and rhizomes	Methanol	[22]
40	2,3,24-Trihydroxyolean-12-en-28-oic acid	C30H48O5	Roots and rhizomes	Methanol	[22]
41	23-Hydroxybetulinic acid	C31H50O4	Roots and rhizomes	Methanol	[22]
42	Shion-22-methoxy-20(21)-en-3-one	C31H52O2	Rhizomes	Methanol	[23]
43	Shion-22-methoxy-20(21)-en-3β-ol	C31H54O2	Rhizomes	Methanol	[23]
44	Shion-22(30)-en-3,21-dione	C29H46O2	Rhizomes	Methanol	[23]
45	15-Hydroxydehydroab ietic acid	C20H28O3	Roots	MeOH	[25]
46	7β-Hydroxydehydroabietie acid	C21H30O2	Roots	MeOH	[25]
47	Junicedric acid	C21H34O4	Roots	MeOH	[25]
48	(13S)-15-hydroxylubd-8(17)-en-19-oic acid	C20H34O3	Roots	MeOH	[25]
49	(11S)-1β-hydroxyeudesm-4(14)-eno-13,6α-lactone	C15H22O3	Roots	MeOH	[25]
50	Aster saponin G2	C57H92O25	Underground parts	Methanol	[26]
51	Aster saponin H	C46H74O18	Underground parts	Methanol	[26]
52	3-O-α-l-arabinopyranosyl-(1 → 6)-β-D-trihydroxyolean-12-en-28-oic acid	C41H66O14	Underground parts	Methanol	[26]
53	Aster saponin G	C57H92O26	Underground parts	Methanol	[26]
54	Aster saponin C2	C73H118O37	Underground parts	Methanol	[26]
55	Aster saponin A2	C67H108O33	Underground parts	Methanol	[26]
56	Aster lingulatoside D	C27H46O	Whole plant	–	[27]
57	Aster lingulatoside C	C27H44O3	Whole plant	–	[27]
58	Aster lingulatoside B	C29H46O2	Whole plant	70 % EtOH	[28]
59	Aster lingulatoside A	C26H42O3	Whole plant	70 % EtOH	[28]
60	Aster saponin A	C68H110O33	Roots	MeOH	[20]
61	Aster saponin B	C62H100O29	Roots	MeOH	[20]
62	Aster saponin C	C74H120O37	Roots	MeOH	[20]
63	Aster saponin D	C73H188O36	Roots	MeOH	[20]
64	Aster batanoside B	C44H72O15	Roots	70 % EtOH	[29]
65	Aster batanoside C	C44H70O15	Roots	70 % EtOH	[29]
66	Aster saponin Hb	C42H66O13	Aboveground parts	MeOH	[30]
67	Aster saponin E	C63H109O29	Roots	MeOH	[20]
68	Aster saponin F	C63H108O28	Roots	MeOH	[20]
69	Aster saponin Ha	C38H58O13	Aboveground parts	MeOH	[20]
70	Aster saponin Hc	C58H92O25	Aboveground parts	MeOH	[20]
71	Aster saponin Hd	C64H102O26	Aboveground parts	MeOH	[20]
72	Aster batanoside F	C56H90O24	Roots	MeOH	[20]
73	Foetidissimoside A	C56H90O18	Aboveground parts	70 % EtOH	[31]
Flavonoids (74–107)
74	Kaempferol	C15H10O6	Whole plant	MeOH	[18]
75	Apigenin-7-O-β-D-glucuronide	C22H20O10	Whole plant	MeOH	[18]
76	Kaempferol-3-O-α-l-rhamnoside	C15H16O10	Whole plant	MeOH	[18]
77	Kaempferol-7-O-α-l-rhamnopyranoside	C21H20O10	Whole plant	MeOH	[18]
78	Quercetin	C15H12O7	Roots and rhizomes	Acetone	[32]
79	Dihydromyricetin	C15H12O8	Roots and rhizomes	Methanol	[22]
80	Myrictrin	C15H10O8	Roots and rhizomes	Methanol	[22]
81	Myricetin	C15H10O8	Roots and rhizomes	Methanol	[22]
82	Liquiritigenin	C15H12O4	Roots and rhizomes	Methanol	[22]
83	Luteolin	C15H10O6	Roots and rhizomes	Methanol	[22]
84	Naringenin	C15H12O5	Roots and rhizomes	Methanol	[22]
85	Genistein	C15H10O5	Roots and rhizomes	Methanol	[22]
86	Acacetin	C16H12O5	Roots and rhizomes	Methanol	[22]
87	Genkwanin	C16H12O5	Roots and rhizomes	Methanol	[22]
88	Apigenin	C15H10O5	Roots and rhizomes	Methanol	[22]
89	Diosmetin	C16H14O6	Roots and rhizomes	Methanol	[22]
90	Isorhamnetin	C16H14O7	Roots and rhizomes	Methanol	[22]
91	Baicalein	C15H10O5	Roots and rhizomes	Methanol	[22]
92	Wogonin	C16H12O5	Roots and rhizomes	Methanol	[22]
93	Biorobin	C27H30O15	Roots and rhizomes	Methanol	[22]
94	Baicalin	C21H18O11	Roots and rhizomes	Methanol	[22]
95	Kaempferol-7-O-β-d-glucopyranoside	C21H20O11	Roots and rhizomes	Methanol	[22]
96	Luteolin-7- galacturonide	C21H20O11	Roots and rhizomes	Methanol	[22]
97	Genistin	C21H20O10	Roots and rhizomes	Methanol	[22]
98	Hesperidin	C29H36O14	Roots and rhizomes	Methanol	[22]
99	Isorhamnetin-3-O- neohespeidoside	C29H36O16	Roots and rhizomes	Methanol	[22]
100	Isorhamnetin-3-O- glucoside	C22H22O12	Roots and rhizomes	Methanol	[22]
101	Quercitrin	C21H20O11	Roots and rhizomes	Methanol	[22]
102	Schaftoside	C26H28O14	Roots and rhizomes	Methanol	[22]
103	Rutin	C28H32O15	Roots and rhizomes	Methanol	[22]
104	Isoschaftoside	C26H28O14	Roots and rhizomes	Methanol	[22]
105	Hyperoside	C21H20O12	Roots and rhizomes	Methanol	[22]
106	Apigenin-5- rhamnoside	C21H20O9	Roots and rhizomes	Methanol	[22]
107	Isoquercitrin	C21H20O12	Roots and rhizomes	Methanol	[22]
Peptides (108–128)
108	Astin A	C25H33Cl2N5O7	Roots	–	[33]
109	Astin B	C25H33Cl2N5O7	Roots	–	[34]
110	Astin C	C25H33Cl2N5O6	Roots	–	[33]
111	Astin D	C25H32ClN5O6	Roots	–	[33]
112	Astin E	C25H32ClN5O7	Roots	–	[33]
113	Astin F	C25H34ClN5O6	Roots	–	[33]
114	Astin G	C25H35N5O6	Roots	–	[33]
115	Astin H	C25H32ClN5O7	Roots	–	[33]
116	Astin I	C25H34ClN5O7	Roots	–	[33]
117	Astin J	C25H33N5O9	Roots	–	[33]
118	Astin K	C25H33Cl2N5O8	Roots	Methanol	[35]
119	Astin L	C25H34ClN5O8	Roots	Methanol	[22]
120	Astin M	C25H34ClN5O6	Roots	Methanol	[35]
121	Astin N	C25H32ClN5O6	Roots	Methanol	[35]
122	Astin O	C27H35Cl2N5O7	Roots	Methanol	[35]
123	Astin P	C26H35Cl2N5O7	Roots	Methanol	[35]
124	Asterinin A	C25H33N5O8	Roots	Ethyl acetate	[36]
125	Asterinin B	C26H35N5O8	Roots	Ethyl acetate	[36]
126	Asterinin C	C26H35N5O8	Roots	Ethyl acetate	[36]
127	Asterinin D	C25H33N5O7	Roots	–	[37]
128	Asterinin E	C26H35N5O9	Roots	–	[37]
Organic acids (129–154)
129	Nethyl caffeate	C10H10O4	Roots and rhizomes	95 % EtOH	[17]
130	O-hydroxybenzoic acid	C7H6O3	Roots and rhizomes	95 % EtOH	[17]
131	P-hydroxyacetophenone	C8H8O2	Roots and rhizomes	95 % EtOH	[17]
132	4-Hydroxybenzoic acid	C7H6O3	Roots and rhizomes	95 % EtOH	[17]
133	3-Hydroxy-4-methoxy benzoic acid	C8H8O4	Roots and rhizomes	95 % EtOH	[17]
134	3,4-Dihydroxybenzoic acid	C7H6O4	Roots and rhizomes	95 % EtOH	[17]
135	Pyrogallic acid	C6H6O3	Roots and rhizomes	Methanol	[22]
136	Benzoic acid	C7H6O2	Roots and rhizomes	Methanol	[22]
137	Protocatechuate	C9H10O4	Roots and rhizomes	Methanol	[22]
138	Caffeic acid	C9H8O4	Roots and rhizomes	Methanol	[22]
139	Paeonol	C9H10O3	Roots and rhizomes	Methanol	[22]
140	Ferulic acid	C10H10O4	Roots and rhizomes	Methanol	[22]
141	Isoferulic acid	C10H10O4	Roots and rhizomes	Methanol	[22]
142	Methyl caffeate	C10H12O4	Roots and rhizomes	Methanol	[22]
143	Succinic acid	C4H6O4	Roots and rhizomes	Methanol	[22]
144	2,2-Dimethylsuccinic acid	C6H10O4	Roots and rhizomes	Methanol	[22]
145	Chlorogenic acid	C16H18O9	Roots and rhizomes	Methanol	[22]
146	Cryptochlorogenic acid	C16H18O9	Roots and rhizomes	Methanol	[22]
147	5-Caffeoylquinic acid	C16H18O9	Whole plant	MeoH	[18]
148	4-Caffeoylquinicacid	C16H18O9	Whole plant	MeoH	[18]
149	3-O-trans-feruloylquinicacid	C18H22O8	Whole plant	MeoH	[18]
150	Cynarin	C25H24O12	Roots and rhizomes	Methanol	[22]
151	3,5-Dicaffeoylquinic acid	C25H24O12	Roots and rhizomes	Methanol	[22]
152	4,5-Dicaffeoylquinicacid	C25H26O12	Whole plant	MeoH	[19]
153	3,4-Dicaffeoylquinic acid	C25H24O12	Roots and rhizomes	Methanol	[22]
154	4,5-Dicaffeoylquinic acid	C25H24O12	Roots and rhizomes	Methanol	[22]
Other compounds (155–186)
155	11β, 13-Dihydro-3-epizaluzanin C	C16H22O2	Roots	MeoH	[25]
156	Dihydroestafiatol	C15H22O3	Roots	MeoH	[25]
157	Dihydroestafiatone	C15H20O3	Roots	MeoH	[25]
158	Dsoamberboin	C15H20O4	Roots	MeoH	[25]
159	Daryolane-1,9β-diol	C14H24O2	Roots	MeoH	[25]
160	7-Hydroxycoumarin	C9H6O3	Roots and rhizomes	95 % EtOH	[17]
161	(−)-Clovane-2,9-diol	C15H26O2	Roots	MeoH	[25]
162	5-Hydroxymeth-yl-furfural	C6H6O3	Roots and rhizomes	95 % EtOH	[25]
163	P-hydroxybenzaldehyde	C7H6O2	Roots and rhizomes	95 % EtOH	[25]
164	Ferulic acid hexacosanyl ester	C37H64O4	Roots and rhizomes	95 % EtOH	[17]
165	Trans-hexacosane-1,2-dihydroxyethyl cinnamate vinegar	C37H64O4	Roots and rhizomes	95 % EtOH	[17]
166	Ethanone	C13H14O4	Roots and rhizomes	95 % EtOH	[17]
167	Viscidone	C13H14O4	Roots and rhizomes	95 % EtOH	[17]
168	Scopoletin	C10H8O4	Roots and rhizomes	–	[32]
169	Emodin	C15H10O5	Roots and rhizomes	–	[32]
170	Emodin anthrone	C15H10O5	Roots and rhizomes	Methanol	[22]
171	Esculin	C15H16O9	Roots and rhizomes	Methanol	[22]
172	5-Hydroxymethyl-2- furaldehyde	C6H10O4	Roots and rhizomes	Methanol	[22]
173	Benzaldehyde	C7H6O	Roots and rhizomes	Methanol	[22]
174	P-hydroxybenzaldehyde	C7H6O2	Roots and rhizomes	Methanol	[22]
175	Esculetin	C9H6O4	Roots and rhizomes	Methanol	[22]
176	Fraxetin	C10H8O5	Roots and rhizomes	Methanol	[22]
177	Xanthotoxin	C12H8O4	Roots and rhizomes	Methanol	[22]
178	Bergapten	C12H8O4	Roots and rhizomes	Methanol	[22]
179	Isoscopoletin	C10H8O4	Roots and rhizomes	Methanol	[22]
180	Psoralen	C11H6O3	Roots and rhizomes	Methanol	[22]
181	Rhein	C15H8O6	Roots and rhizomes	Methanol	[22]
182	1-Acetoxy-2-ene€-4,6-decandiyne	C12H14O2	Roots and rhizomes	95 % EtOH	[17]
183	(E)-2-decend-4,6-diyn-1-ol	C10H12O	Roots and rhizomes	95 % EtOH	[17]
184	Lachnophyllic acid	C10H10O2	Roots and rhizomes	95 % EtOH	[17]
185	N-octadecane	C18H38	Whole plant	MeoH	[18]
186	N-triacontanol	C30H62O	Whole plant	MeoH	[18]

4.1. Terpenes

Terpenes are polymers of isoprene and its derivatives. They are synthesized from isoprene pyrophosphate, with most of them having a structure in which the isoprene residues are linked at the head and tail. Based on the number of isoprene units (5 carbon units), terpenes are classified as monoterpenes (2 units), sesquiterpenes (3 units), diterpenes (4 units), triterpenes (6 units), tetraterpenes (8 units), and polyterpenes (more than 8 units). Terpenes are the primary components of Aster tataricus. To date, 73 terpenes (Fig. 3) have been isolated from Aster tataricus, with triterpenes and triterpenoid saponins being the main types. In particular, shionane-type triterpenes have been identified as the main constituents of Aster tataricus and shown to have anti-tussive and expectorant activities [38]. According to the Chinese Pharmacopoeia (2020), shionone can be used as a maker for the quality control of Aster tataricus.

Fig. 3.

Structures of terpenes from Aster tataricus.

4.2. Flavonoids

Flavonoids are one of the most important natural compounds widely found in the in the plant kingdom [39]. They have a core 2-phenyl chromone nucleus without the substitution of an oxygen-containing group at the 3ꞌ end [40]. In a study, Aster tataricus was ultrasonicated with 25 mL of methanol for 30 min and subjected to UHPLC-Q-TOF-MS to yield different flavonoids [3]. To date, 34 flavonoids have been isolated from Aster tataricus, including flavonols, flavones, and their glycoside. The chemical structures of these molecules and sources are presented in Table 3 and Fig. 4.

Fig. 4.

Structures of flavonoids from Aster tataricus.

4.3. Peptides

Peptides are the characteristic components of Aster tataricus [41], mainly including oligopeptides, acyclic peptides, and chlorinated cyclic peptides [11]. They exhibit diverse biological activities, including anti-tumor and immune-regulatory activities [42]. However, the number of peptides isolated from Aster tataricus is limited. The two main types of peptide analogs identified in Aster tataricus are cyclic (117, 124–128) and chain (108–116, 118–123). The structures and sources of these peptides are presented in Table 3 and Fig. 5.

Fig. 5.

Structures of peptides from Aster tataricus.

4.4. Organic acids

Multiple organic acids are found in Aster tataricus, such as fatty acids, polyphenols, and carboxylic acids. These compounds are abundant in the leaves, roots, and especially fruits and are usually found in the form of salts or esters. To date, 26 organic acids have been isolated from Aster tataricus, all of which contain aromatic rings and are mostly classified as small molecules. The structures of these organic acids (129–154) are shown in Fig. 6.

Fig. 6.

Structures of organic acids from Aster tataricus.

4.5. Other compounds

In addition to the abovementioned common chemical compounds, more than 30 other compounds have been isolated from Aster tataricus. These compounds include 155–159, which are 7-membered cyclic compounds isolated from the methanolic extract of Aster tataricus [43], and 182–184, which are acetylenes isolated from the 95 % ethanolic extract of Aster tataricus [17]. Two chained alkanes named N-octadecane and N-triacontanol have been extracted from the methanolic extracts of whole plants of Aster tataricus [19]. In addition, coumarins and quinones have been identified in Aster tataricus (Fig. 7) .

Fig. 7.

Structures of other compounds from Aster tataricus.

5. Pharmacological activities

Aster tataricus has been used in TCM for the treatment of respiratory diseases for more than 2000 years. With the continuous progress of science and technology, numerous studies have investigated the pharmacological activities and mechanisms of action of the abovementioned bioactive compounds. Modern pharmacological studies have shown that Aster tataricus has a wide range of therapeutic effects (Fig. 8), including anti-cough and pro-expectoration, anti-asthmatic, anti-inflammatory, anti-tumor, anti-oxidant, anti-depressant, anti-bacterial, and anti-viral effects.

Fig. 8.

Pharmacological activities of Aster tataricus.

5.1. Anti-cough and pro-expectoration effects

In TCM, Zi wan is an important drug for suppressing coughs and promoting expectoration. The expectoration-inducing effects of Aster tataricus can be attributed to asterone and epimedanol, which have been isolated from petroleum ether and ethyl acetate extracts [44].

In a study, the composition of the volatile oil of Aster tataricus was analyzed via gas chromatography-mass spectrometry, and seven compounds were eventually identified. In vivo experiments and phenol red assay showed that 1-acetyl-trans-2-en-4,6-decadiyne, the main component of the volatile oil, had expectoration-inducing effects [45]. Aqueous extracts of Aster tataricus have been shown to reduce the frequency of cough induced by ammonia liquor in mice [46]. Yu et al. showed that Aster tataricus extracts (Fr-50) exerted remarkable pro-expectoration, anti-tussive, and anti-inflammatory effects at doses of 40 and 80 mg/kg. They used HPLC-Q-TOF/MS to investigate Fr-50 and found that chlorogenic acids (CGAs) eliminated or reduced tracheal inflammation, which is one of the main causes of cough and phlegm [47]. In addition, shionone and 1-acetoxy-2-ene (E)-4,6-decandiyne extracted from Aster tataricus have been identified as effective expectorants [48].

Triterpenoid saponins, which are one of the chemical constituents of Aster tataricus, are often considered expectorants [49]. Some studies have reported that shionone and epi-friedelanol isolated from Aster tataricus extracts can substantially decrease the frequency of ammonia-induced cough in mice [50].

Therefore, we speculate that triterpenoid saponins found in Aster tataricus may serve as primary expectorants that reduce airway inflammation and relieve cough, and its mechanism of action needs to be further investigated.

5.2. Anti-asthmatic effects

Asthma is a prime example of a “complex disease”. It is considered a syndrome instead of a disease because it is defined based on clinical characteristics rather than underlying mechanisms [51]. The principal clinical characteristics of asthma are reversible airflow obstruction, airway hyperresponsiveness, and airway inflammation [52].

Peng et al. [53] showed that the ethanolic extracts of Aster tataricus exhibited potent anti-asthmatic activity in guinea pigs. The mechanism of action was found to be related to the inhibition of tracheal smooth muscle M receptor, H₁ receptor, and Ca²⁺ channels, which resulted in the inhibition of the inward flow of Ca²⁺. In addition, Chen et al. [54] showed that Aster tataricus extracts exerted anti-asthmatic effects by attenuating OVA-induced immune responses and inhibiting tracheal ring contraction.

5.3. Anti-inflammatory effects

According to folkloric and scientific literature, Aster tataricus has potential anti-inflammatory effects. In TCM, inflammation is called “Fa Yan”, which is a defense response to harmful stimuli and manifests as redness, swelling, heat, pain, and dysfunction. Inflammation is one of the common pathological conditions observed in clinical practice and is considered the first line of defense against invading pathogens [40]. However, unregulated inflammation can lead to allergies, cancer, and atherosclerosis [54].

Du et al. [55] reported that the ethanolic extract of Aster tataricus suppressed pro-inflammatory cytokines and activated the NF-κB signaling pathway, thereby exerting therapeutic effects against diabetes mellitus.

Zhang et al. [56] found that Aster tataricus exerted anti-neuroinflammatory effects by preventing the generation of free radicals, enhancing the activity of antioxidant enzymes, and suppressing the activity of pro-inflammatory cytokines.

Wang et al. [57] evaluated the protective effects of Aster tataricus extracts on CYP- or LPS + ATP-induced interstitial cystitis. The results showed that Aster tataricus extracts alleviated inflammation in rat bladder and urothelial cells by inhibiting the expression of pyroptosis-related proteins and downregulating the NLRP3/GSDMD-N signaling pathway.

Liu et al. [58] found that 4-hydroxyphenylacetic acid isolated from Aster tataricus alleviated inflammation by inhibiting the hypertonicity- and hypoxia-induced production of hypoxia-inducible factor 1-alpha in rats with seawater aspiration-induced lung injury.

Su et al. [59] analyzed the chemical composition of the methanolic extract of the rhizomes and roots of Aster tataricus and evaluated its anti-inflammatory activity. The results showed that lachnophyllol acetate was a candidate drug for the treatment of inflammatory diseases mediated by the NF-κB and MAPK signaling pathways.

5.4. Anti-tumor effects

Despite remarkable advancements in science and technology, malignant tumors remain a serious threat to human health worldwide [60]. The demand for anti-tumor drugs remains high as the global incidence of tumor increases. Natural active ingredients used in TCM have been reported to have therapeutic effects against tumors to some extent [61,62]. Pharmacological studies have shown that Aster tataricus has potential anti-tumor activity. For example, Zhou et al. [23] found that terpenes isolated from Aster tataricus induced tumor cell apoptosis.

Furthermore, plant-derived polysaccharides have been shown to possess anti-tumor properties [63]. Zhang et al. [64] reported that a water-soluble polysaccharide isolated from Aster tataricus induced apoptosis in SGC-7901 cells through calcium- and ΔΨ_m-dependent pathways, indicating that it may be used as a natural anti-cancer agent. Du et al. [65] isolated a homogeneous polysaccharide (ATP-II) from the 80 % ethanolic extract of Aster tataricus and assessed its anti-cancer effects and mechanism of action in glioma C6 cells. In vitro experiments showed that ATP-II effectively inhibited the proliferation of C6 cells by inducing DAN injury and apoptosis. In vivo experiments showed that ATP-II markedly inhibited the growth of C6-transplanted tumors and induced tumor cell apoptosis by increasing the Bax/Bcl-2 ratio and stimulating the activation of caspase-3, caspase-8, and caspase-9. These findings suggest that ATP-II is a safe and effective drug for the treatment of malignant glioma. Yao et al. [66] showed that the aqueous extract of Aster tataricus attenuated the proliferative and invasive abilities of human lung cancer A549 cells and inhibited the growth of transplanted tumors in nude mice by suppressing the Wnt/β-catenin signaling pathway.

5.5. Anti-oxidant effects

Anti-oxidants can prevent oxidation, both endogenously and exogenously, at low doses [67]. Phenolic acids and other classes of phenylpropanoids derived from medicinal plants are strong anti-oxidants and effective free radical scavengers [68]. Anti-oxidants are vital for human health, as they reduce the risk of free radical damage to cells [69].

Ng et al. [33] found that quercetin and kaempferol isolated from Aster tataricus exhibited the highest potency and possessed minimal pro-oxidant activity.

Zhang et al. [70] isolated active ingredients from the roots and flowers of Aster tataricus through solvent extraction and investigated the anti-oxidant activity of the extracts using DPPH assay. The results showed that both flower and roots extracts exerted strong anti-oxidant effects in a concentration- and solvent polarity-dependent manner.

Du et al. [55] found that the root extracts of Aster tataricus effectively alleviated diabetic retinopathy by controlling blood glucose levels and attenuating attenuating oxidative stress, and suppressing inflammatory mediators.

5.6. Anti-depressant effects

Depression is a common mental disorder. According to the World Health Organization, 5 % of adults have depression worldwide, with the incidence being higher among women than among men. Commercially available anti-depressants often have slow results and many side effects [71]. Wan et al. [72] identified the chemical constituents of Aster tataricus via HPLC-MS and evaluated their anti-depressant activity. The results revealed high levels of kaempferol, quercetin, chlorogenic acid, caffeic acid, and ferulic acid in Aster tataricus extracts. Among these compounds, quercetin, chlorogenic acid, and ferulic acid were found to have anti-depressant effects. However, the anti-depressant activity of Aster tataricus has been reported in limited studies and warrants further investigation.

5.7. Anti-bacterial and anti-viral effects

The anti-bacterial and anti-viral activities of Aster tataricus have been extensively investigated [73]. For instance, Zhou et al. [74] evaluated the anti-viral activities of six triterpenoids isolated from Aster tataricus. The results showed that Aster shionoes C remarkably inhibited the surface antigen of hepatitis B virus as well as its secretion and viral DNA replication.

Liu et al. [75] showed that the ethanolic extract of Aster tataricus exerted strong bacteriostatic effects against Varistaptyoccus aureas, Pasteurella maltocida, E.coli., Streptococci and Salmonella, with the lowest inhibitory concentrations of 0.80 g/mL, 0.05 g/mL, 0.50 g/mL, 0.20 g/mL, 0.20 g/mL, respectively.

5.8. Other pharmacological effects

In addition to the abovementioned effects, other pharmacological effects of Aster tataricus have been reported in previous studies. Astin C, one of the compounds isolated from the roots of Aster tataricus, can exert immunosuppressive effects by inducing T-cell apoptosis [76]. Li et al. [77] found that the cyclopeptide astin C exerted potent anti-cancer and immunosuppressive effects by binding to STING, a key cytosolic DNA sensor protein involved in natural immunity in humans.

Chen et al. [78] investigated the protective effects of Aster tataricus on acute lung injury caused by an endotoxin from Acanthopanax quinquefolia. Network pharmacology and experiments showed that the candidate compound in Aster tataricus extracts alleviated LPS-induced acute lung injury mainly by inhibiting the release of inflammatory factors and promoting the repair of the vascular endothelium.

Rho et al. [79] showed that Aster tataricus alleviated testosterone-induced benign prostatic hyperplasia in rats by promoting apoptosis and inhibiting inflammation. These results indicate that Aster tataricus can be used to treat inflammation associated with benign prostatic hyperplasia in clinical settings.

Recently, Li et al. [80] examined the bioactivities of five undescribed α-pyrone (neuropyrones A–E) derivatives from the endophytic fungus Neurospora dictyophora WZ-497 derived from the stems of Aster tataricus. The results showed that neuropyrones A–C exerted potent inhibitory effects on tyrosinase, with IC₅₀ values of 0.38 ± 0.07, 0.49 ± 0.06, and 0.12 ± 0.01 mM, respectively.

Lee et al. [81] found that ethanolic extracts of Aster tataricus regulated osteoclast differentiation and alleviated osteoporosis as well as related metabolic changes after estrogen depletion. These results indicate that Aster tataricus can be used as an alternative treatment strategy for postmenopausal osteoporosis accompanied by metabolic imbalance.

5.9. Toxicity and safety

Modern pharmacological studies have primarily focused on the therapeutic effects of Aster tataricus against cough, tumors, and other diseases; however, studies investigating its toxic effects are limited.

To further improve the safety of Aster tataricus medication, toxicity and subtoxicity of it was evaluated by Peng et al. [5]. The study showed that Aster tataricus could produce toxic effects, mainly on the liver; much less on the heart. The acute oral toxicity experiment showed that Aster tataricus is capable of toxic effects and resulted in an LD₅₀ of 15.74 g/kg BW in mice, The subchronic experiment, conducted at a dose of 0.34 g/kg/d.BW, demonstrated that the toxic components of Aster tataricus were mainly concentrated in the petroleum ether fraction, followed by the ethyl acetate fraction, the n-butyl alcohol fraction, the lower aqueous phase and the 75 % ethanol extract. In addition, terpenes can cause toxicity in tumor cells by inducing apoptosis and DNA mutations [23].

To provide an experimental basis for evaluating the safety of the utilization and development of Aster tataricus, in-depth studies on its potential toxicity should be carried out.

6. Conclusions and perspectives

The dried roots and rhizomes of Aster tataricus have been used in TCM for thousands of years [56]. Approximately 250 Aster species are found worldwide; of which, 100 species are found in China, mainly in Anhui and Hebei [5]. Ancient literary records indicate that Aster tataricus suppresses cough, alleviates asthma, improves eclampsia in children, urination, and relieves constipation. It is rich in active ingredients and has a wide range of pharmacological effects. This review summarized the morphology characteristics, chemical composition, and therapeutic effects of Aster tataricus based on traditional literature and modern evidence, providing a scientific basis for further research and exploitation of medicinal plants to develop more effective therapeutic drugs.

With the continuous development of research tools and instruments, numerous compounds have been isolated and identified from Aster tataricus, which has not only improved the understanding of its chemical constituents but also provided more comprehensive and accurate information for its medicinal and nutritional applications. Terpenes, flavonoids, organic acids, peptides, esters, coumarins, quinones, alkanes, and alkynes isolated from it exhibit a wide range of pharmacological activities. For example, terpenes, the main chemical constituents of Aster tataricus, can induce apoptosis and DNA mutations in tumor cells, thereby exerting anti-tumor effects. Caffeoylquinic acids and epifriedelinol possess strong anti-oxidant, anti-inflammatory, and anti-cancer activities. Scopoletin can effectively treat diabetes and alleviate inflammation and oxidative stress. In addition, astin C can suppresses the immune system by inducing T-cell apoptosis [33]. And its distinctive chlorinated pentacyclic structure and potential pharmacological activities have received substantial attention from researchers. Although several studies have reported the pharmacological effects of Aster tataricus, the translation of research findings into clinical practice is limited.

Remarkable progress has been made in research on the phytochemical composition and pharmacological effects of Aster tataricus. However, certain gaps in knowledge remain to be addressed. First, the pharmacological effects of terpenes, the main chemical constituents of Aster tataricus, should be evaluated comprehensively. Cyclic peptides have effective anti-tumor and immunosuppressive activities; however, few peptides have been extracted from Aster tataricus. Second, cancer is a leading cause of death worldwide, accounting for approximately 10 million deaths in 2020. The cyclopeptide astin C, isolated from the endophytic fungus Cyanodermella asteris derived from Aster tataricus, has been reported to have potent anti-cancer and immunosuppressive activities. It functions by binding to STING, a crucial cytosolic DNA sensor protein involved in innate immunity. Therefore, to facilitate the rational utilization of Aster tataricus resources and determine the optimal concentrations of its active compounds, the chemical composition and pharmacological effects of Cyanodermella asteris should be extensively investigated. Third, since ancient times, Aster tataricus has been used as an effective anti-cough agent and expectorant. Although modern pharmacological studies have validated these effects, the development of Aster tataricus into a drug remains an unaddressed concern. Last but not least, considering the pharmacological activities and potential health benefits of Aster tataricus, its toxicological profile should be analyzed intensively.

In addition to its medicinal value, the toxicity and safety of Aster tataricus warrants strict consideration, in order to provide experimental basis for the development and utilization of Aster tataricus. However, further research is warranted to validate these findings.

In conclusion, Aster tataricus is an important source of active components, with a wide range of pharmacological activity. However, the chemical compounds isolated from Aster tataricus are inadequate, and their mechanism of action warrants further investigation. Therefore, future research should be focused on the isolation and identification of chemical components from Aster tataricus, systematic analysis of their biological activities, in-depth exploration of pulmonary diseases, and strengthening drug development to expand the application of Aster tataricus.

Data availability

No data was used for the research described in the article.

CRediT authorship contribution statement

Xi-Ling Fan: Writing – review & editing, Writing – original draft. Zhong-Peng Qin: Writing – original draft, Formal analysis. Jian-Hui Wen: Writing – review & editing, Supervision. Zhen-Zhong Wang: Writing – review & editing, Supervision, Funding acquisition. Wei Xiao: Writing – review & editing, Supervision, Funding acquisition.

Declaration of Competing interest

No potential declaration of interest statement was reported by the authors.