Abstract
化学疗法(简称化疗)是治疗恶性肿瘤的重要方法,但其在发挥疗效的同时,也导致许多副作用,包括对女性内分泌和生育能力的影响。除了现存的卵巢保存措施,防治卵巢功能损伤更为关键。化疗致卵巢功能损伤的机制包括卵泡及支持细胞的直接凋亡、卵泡“耗竭效应”、卵巢基质和微血管损伤,并与患者初诊年龄、初始低水平抗米勒管激素、化疗药物毒性和剂量、化疗方案等因素有关。防治卵巢功能损伤的措施包括应用促性腺激素释放激素激动剂或拮抗剂、酪氨酸激酶抑制剂、抗氧化剂、鞘氨醇-1-磷酸、神经酰胺-1-磷酸、哺乳动物雷帕霉素靶蛋白抑制剂、粒细胞集落刺激因子、干细胞疗法和人工卵巢等。本文通过文献综述以期为化疗所致卵巢损伤的防治提供思路和参考。
Keywords: 化学疗法, 卵巢损伤, 卵巢保护, 机制, 综述
Abstract
Chemotherapy is a main treatment option for malignant tumors, but it may cause various adverse effects, including dysfunction of female endocrine system and fertility. Chemotherapy-induced ovarian damage has been concerned with ovarian preservation but also the prevention and treatment of ovarian dysfunction. In this article, the mechanisms of ovarian injury caused by chemotherapy, including apoptosis of the follicle and supporting cells, follicle “burn out”, ovarian stromal and microvascular damage; and influencing factors, including age at diagnosis, initial low pre-treatment anti-Müllerian hormone levels, toxicity, dose and regimen of chemotherapy drugs are reviewed based on the latest research results and clinical practice. The article also discusses measures and frontier therapies for the prevention and treatment of ovarian injury, including the application of gonadotropin releasing hormone agonists or antagonists, tyrosine kinase inhibitors, antioxidants, sphingosine-1-phosphate, ceramide-1-phosphate, mammalian target of rapamycin inhibitors, granulocyte-colony stimulating factor, stem cell therapy and artificial ovaries.
Keywords: Chemotherapy, Injury of ovary, Ovarian protection, Mechanism, Review
随着恶性肿瘤发病率的逐年升高,越来越多的女性受到恶性肿瘤的困扰。化学疗法(以下简称化疗)作为肿瘤治疗中的重要手段,在杀灭肿瘤细胞的同时,也会对女性的卵巢功能产生不同程度的损伤,严重时可导致女性卵巢功能障碍。防治化疗所致的卵巢损伤是保护女性肿瘤患者生殖健康、提升生活质量的重要环节之一。本文结合国内外最新的研究成果和诊疗实践,综述了化疗损伤卵巢机制研究和卵巢损伤防治前沿疗法的最新进展,以期为临床提供参考。
1. 化疗药物致卵巢功能损伤的机制
人的卵泡自胚胎起开始发育,以原始卵泡这一静止的形式存在于人体内。每个月经周期内一部分原始卵泡被招募至生长的卵泡池中,即原始卵泡激活[1],非优势卵泡逐渐闭锁。功能良好的卵巢通过这样的方式不断进行更新,而化疗药物可作用于卵泡发育的各个环节,包括原始卵泡的储备、激活及卵泡的发育阶段,其损伤机制主要涉及卵泡凋亡、卵泡“耗竭效应”、卵巢基质和血管损伤这三个方面[2],最终通过原始卵泡的直接丢失或过度激活、各级卵泡的闭锁、卵巢支持细胞的凋亡、炎症反应和减少血管生成这五种途径造成不同程度的卵巢功能损伤。
1.1. 卵泡及支持细胞直接凋亡
铂类、烷化剂类等在内的多种常用化疗药物通过诱导DNA的损伤来杀伤肿瘤细胞,这种效应可“脱靶”作用于卵泡及卵巢支持细胞,直接导致其凋亡[3]。化疗所致卵母细胞凋亡与TAp63蛋白相关。Gonfloni等[4]发现,在顺铂处理过的细胞中,TAp63被非受体型酪氨酸激酶c-Abl激活,并能够被c-Abl抑制剂伊马替尼抑制。一项最新研究显示,在环磷酰胺和阿霉素诱导的原始卵泡丧失过程中,c-Abl并未发挥显著作用,CHK2介导的p63途径才是调控原始卵泡死亡的重要信号通路[5]。后者不仅进一步确认了TAp63的关键作用,也强调了c-Abl抑制剂和CHK2抑制剂对不同化疗药物的疗效不同,并提出CHK2抑制剂临床应用的可能性。进一步的研究证实,TAp63的磷酸化上调了促凋亡蛋白puma和noxa的转录水平,破坏了抗凋亡蛋白Bcl-2和促凋亡蛋白Bax之间的平衡,最终导致细胞死亡[5-7]。此外,卵巢的支持细胞(包括颗粒细胞和卵泡膜细胞)也可能在化疗药物的作用下通过内质网应激、氧化应激、炎症等途径引起自噬相关的凋亡[8],这也是引起早发性卵巢功能不全的重要原因[9]。研究发现,化疗药物能通过扰乱线粒体呼吸链产生过量活性氧,抑制癌细胞的增殖;也会作用于卵巢的颗粒细胞,产生过多的活性氧,引发脂质过氧化,诱发铁死亡,最终导致细胞凋亡[10]。
不同的化疗药物通过不同机制诱导DNA双链断裂,导致细胞凋亡,但这种DNA的损伤并不是无法弥补的,DNA的修复机制在一定程度上阻止了部分细胞的死亡。与体细胞的DNA修复途径不同,卵母细胞的DNA修复途径以同源重组修复途径为主[11]。这种途径涉及毛细血管扩张性共济失调突变蛋白的磷酸化,并需要BRCA1、BRCA2、RAD51的参与[12-13]。减少化疗诱导的DNA损伤和增强DNA修复均有助于维持化疗暴露后的卵母细胞储备。
近年来也有研究者发现了miRNA在原始卵泡损伤中的作用。Alexandri等[14]观察到环磷酰胺代谢物处理后的原始卵泡miR-let-7a下调,参与了细胞增殖、DNA损伤修复和凋亡途径。Li等[15]也发现miR-484在卵巢储备功能下降患者的颗粒细胞中存在高表达,并通过Yap1诱导细胞凋亡。上述研究进一步完善了细胞凋亡所致卵巢损伤的机制研究,但关于miRNA的研究目前仍不明确,需要更多的实验探索。
1.2. 卵泡耗竭效应
过度的卵泡激活会导致卵泡的衰竭,从而导致卵巢功能早衰;而卵泡激活的持续抑制也可能使有功能卵泡产生不足,也可导致卵巢早衰[2]。因此,维持卵泡池的静止和卵泡激活之间的平衡对卵巢功能有重要的影响。有学者据此提出了“耗竭效应”理论,认为化疗药物所致卵巢功能受损是由于化疗导致卵泡被破坏,降低了AMH水平,解除了对原始卵泡的抑制,致使原始卵泡过度激活以至耗竭[16]。
许多研究表明,PI3K/PTEN/Akt通路在卵泡的生长和激活中起到关键作用。卵母细胞内的PI3K在生长因子的作用下,将PIP2转化为PIP3,导致Akt活化,使转录因子FOXO3从细胞核转位至细胞质。FOXO3是卵泡激活的抑制分子,原本位于细胞核内,维持原始卵泡的静止形式。FOXO3转位后,其转录活性被抑制,并表现为原始卵泡的激活[17]。PTEN的作用则体现在将PIP3逆转为PIP2的负性调控这一过程,也起到抑制原始卵泡启动发育的作用。Akt活化也会诱导卵泡激活的抑制因子TSC1、TSC2的磷酸化失活,从而诱导mTOR复合物1靶点的磷酸化,激活S6蛋白激酶S6K1和核糖体蛋白rpS6,最终激活卵泡[18-19]。Bellusci等[20]发现在环磷酰胺处理后的卵泡内PI3K/PTEN/Akt通路被激活,证实了这一过程。但是,Luan等[21]进一步研究发现原始卵泡在短暂的激活后还表现出了细胞凋亡的印记。Maidarti等[19]还发现,使用PTEN抑制剂激活原始卵泡可致DNA修复受损表现,表明此通路在激活原始卵泡的同时,也会导致卵泡基因组不稳定,从而加速卵泡的丢失。迄今,PI3K/PTEN/Akt通路与细胞凋亡之间的关系尚未阐明[7],但可以明确的是,PI3K/PTEN/Akt通路在卵巢功能的损伤中扮演着重要角色,而且针对mTOR复合物、PTEN等靶点的药物在体内外研究中均取得了一定的疗效[22-25]。
1.3. 卵巢基质和微血管损伤
化疗药物还可直接作用于卵巢的基质和血管,导致血管的损伤和卵巢皮质局灶性纤维化。尽管原始卵泡所在皮质本身的血管灌注并不丰富,但有研究仍然观察到了微血管密度与原始卵泡凋亡之间呈负相关[26]。因此,这种血管的损伤和纤维化很可能导致局部缺血,最终导致原始卵泡丧失和各级卵泡闭锁。研究显示,环磷酰胺、白消安和阿霉素均具有上述作用[2]。紫衫醇类药物也可导致急性卵巢损伤,但这种损伤是可逆的,长期观察发现部分血流可以恢复[27]。
2. 化疗致卵巢功能损伤的影响因素
迄今,加大化疗对卵巢损伤风险较明确的因素包括患者初诊年龄及初始低水平AMH、化疗药物毒性及剂量和方案[28]。
初诊年龄较大和初始低水平AMH预示着较差的初始卵巢储备功能,通常认为35岁以上的女性卵巢功能将会加速下降,低于1.09 ng/mL的AMH提示女性卵巢功能减退[29]。这类初始卵巢功能较差的患者更易被化疗药物导致卵巢功能操作。
不同的化疗药物因作用机制的不同,按照性腺毒性的大小可分为高危、中危、低危三类[30]。烷化剂类包括环磷酰胺、异环磷酰胺、白消安等,其代谢物可直接与DNA相互作用,导致DNA双链断裂,促使卵泡凋亡,因此被归类为高危药物[6]。在妇科肿瘤中最为常用的药物紫杉醇类、铂类、蒽环类是中危药物,其中紫杉醇类主要通过与微管蛋白结合,影响细胞有丝分裂[31];铂类会导致DNA之间、DNA与蛋白质之间的交联,干扰DNA修复,抑制DNA的复制和转录;蒽环类抗生素是DNAⅡ型拓扑异构酶抑制剂,通过改变DNA的结构阻止复制和转录过程[6]。另一类妇科肿瘤常用的抗代谢类药物甲氨蝶呤和5-氟尿嘧啶等是低危药物,两者分别作用于DNA的合成和有丝分裂中,对人体卵泡无DNA损伤作用[32]。化疗药物的不同剂量也存在不同的效应,为了衡量药物剂量与毒性的大小,有学者提出了环磷酰胺当量剂量的概念[33],发现剂量超过8 g/m2的烷化剂与卵巢功能衰竭相关[34]。法国2021年生育力保存指南认为,对于接受低于6 g/m2当量剂量治疗的15岁以下女性患者,不需要考虑药物性腺毒性对其卵巢的影响;无烷化剂方案的患者也无需进行预防性的卵巢治疗[35]。因此,在选择化疗方案时,需要综合考虑药物的性腺毒性及剂量;相比联合化疗方案,单一的化疗方案往往毒性更小。
此外,吸烟史、体重指数、癌症种类、靶向药物的使用、携带BRCA基因突变等因素是否会加大化疗对卵巢功能损伤的影响尚未明确[36]。
3. 化疗致卵巢功能损伤的防治策略
在化疗致卵巢功能损伤的防治中,有较多学者秉持着“预防卵巢功能损伤比治疗更重要”的理念。从生育力保存的角度来看,胚胎冻存、卵母细胞冻存及卵巢组织冻存是目前三大基本策略,其中胚胎和卵母细胞的冻存已经成为临床一线方法,但每种方法均有其局限性,从而限制其临床应用。鉴于目前卵巢功能保护措施仍存在一定的局限性,越来越多的研究开始聚焦于如何在化疗开始前或化疗时保护卵巢功能。其中应用较为广泛的是GnRH激动剂,其他保护剂也已在动物体内进行研究,另外,干细胞治疗、人工卵巢等新疗法也逐渐进入人们的视线中。
3.1. 减少卵泡直接丢失
3.1.1. GnRH激动剂
GnRH激动剂是目前保护卵巢功能的添加剂中唯一可应用于临床的药物,其主要通过诱导低荷尔蒙状态来保护卵巢功能。GnRH激动剂与GnRH受体竞争性结合,最初引起促性腺激素的短暂释放,但在慢性刺激下,GnRH受体数下调,最终长期抑制卵泡刺激素释放,关闭下丘脑-垂体-性腺轴,减少卵泡的募集和增殖[37]。此外,GnRH激动剂的作用还包括:①减少卵巢血流量,从而减少到达卵巢的化疗药物;②上调卵巢中的抗凋亡分子,以保护卵巢中的原始干细胞;③间接对卵巢的颗粒细胞发挥抗凋亡作用;④提高AMH水平,以防止化疗降低AMH水平导致原始卵泡的募集[38]。
已有多项临床研究发现,在乳腺癌、血液系统恶性肿瘤、造血干细胞的移植过程、早期子宫内膜癌、卵巢恶性肿瘤、子宫颈癌中运用GnRH激动剂能够改善患者的卵巢功能和生育结局,且不影响总生存期和无病进展期[37, 39-42]。对于雌激素依赖的肿瘤,GnRH激动剂的使用也不会影响疾病转归。有关GnRH激动剂的选择,每次注射3.6 mg戈舍瑞林或3.75 mg亮丙瑞林/曲普瑞林的效果相似[42]。使用的时机,建议在月经周期第24或25日注射,能在不改变本次周期的情况下中断下一周期的卵泡生长。最关键的是要在化疗开始前1~2周就使用GnRH激动剂,每四周注射一次[37]。但是,患者接受化疗往往十分紧迫,因此难以很好选择GnRH激动剂使用的时机。
关于GnRH激动剂究竟能否使患者获益存在一定的争议。目前的争议主要集中于现有的临床研究,包括实验终点的选择、患者中位年龄的差异、随访时间和临床研究的异质性[43]。有学者认为GnRH激动剂无法成功诱导出卵巢抑制的环境,也有学者质疑GnRH激动剂在保护卵巢分泌功能和怀孕结局上的不一致性[44-45],因此仍需要更多高级别的证据来证实。美国临床肿瘤学会和欧洲人类生殖和胚胎学协会相关指南都将GnRH激动剂作为一项在卵巢保护的其他措施不可用时的替代方案,我国《女性恶性肿瘤患者化疗时卵巢损伤的防治策略专家共识》推荐的最佳方案也是将GnRH激动剂与其他方法联用,以提高保护卵巢功能的有效性[28-29, 46]。
3.1.2. GnRH拮抗剂
GnRH拮抗剂能与GnRH受体竞争性结合,减少卵泡刺激素释放,从而达到与GnRH激动剂类似的效果。不同之处在于GnRH拮抗剂不能诱导GnRH初始释放,因此不需要等待14 d即能抑制卵巢功能,相比之下起效更快,对某些癌症患者来说更为有利。几项基于动物模型的研究证实,GnRH拮抗剂能够保护大鼠卵巢功能的作用,如Lemos等[47]发现在使用环磷酰胺的Wistar大鼠中,联用GnRH拮抗剂能增加其产仔数。但目前关于单独应用GnRH拮抗剂的报道仍较少。
3.1.3. 酪氨酸激酶抑制剂
伊马替尼是一种酪氨酸激酶抑制剂,因其能够靶向BCR-Abl蛋白的Abl激酶结构域[48],常用于治疗慢性粒细胞白血病。研究发现,伊马替尼能够抑制顺铂引起的卵母细胞死亡,可以作为化疗期间保存卵泡储备的一种方法[4]。但也有研究者发现其与c-Abl抑制剂GNF2共同给药并不能保护环磷酰胺导致的原始卵泡损伤,并在Abl基因缺陷小鼠上得到了验证[5]。
3.1.4. 卵泡刺激素和黄体生成素
卵泡刺激素受体和黄体生成素受体在卵泡发生的早期就已经开始表达,可能对卵巢储备卵母细胞发挥保护作用[49]。Rossi等[50]发现黄体生成素及卵泡刺激素能够防止顺铂诱导的卵母细胞凋亡,并能对青春期前小鼠卵巢的原始卵泡提供有效保护。Del Castillo等[49]的研究也得出了类似的结果,发现在使用烷化剂的CD-1小鼠中加用黄体生成素能够有效地预防化疗引起的卵泡耗竭、闭锁和卵巢基质变性。这些研究为青春期前癌症患者的卵巢保护提供了更多策略。
3.1.5. 抗氧化剂
氧化应激引起的炎症反应可诱导自噬,从而导致细胞凋亡。目前已有多种抗氧化剂在实验室研究中取得了一定的疗效。褪黑激素除了能够调节昼夜节律,也是一种独特的自由基清除剂和抗氧化剂,能够直接清除活性氧或激活抗氧化酶,发挥保护卵巢储备功能和线粒体功能的作用[51]。此外,研究发现二甲双胍能减轻卡铂引起的卵巢损伤,这可能与其抗氧化作用有关[52]。其他的抗氧化剂如藏红花酸、美司钠、白藜芦醇、枸橼酸西地那非等也都在动物实验中显示出保护卵巢储备功能的作用[32]。
3.1.6. S1P和C1P
S1P和C1P均为神经酰胺诱导的细胞凋亡的抑制剂[53]。在人和小鼠的卵巢组织中发现,S1P能够消除环磷酰胺和阿霉素引起的卵泡凋亡,并抑制凋亡相关蛋白caspase-3的表达,进一步证实S1P可能通过PI3K依赖性途径激活蛋白激酶Akt进而抑制caspase-3的活性,从而抑制细胞凋亡[54]。近年来还发现,S1P能够预防精子中BRCA介导的DNA损伤,但在女性生殖系统中仍有待进一步研究[55]。另外,研究也表明卵泡内注射C1P能够改善环磷酰胺使用后卵巢早衰的杂交小鼠卵泡、血管发育,并促使其生育能力恢复[56]。
3.2. 抑制卵泡过度激活
3.2.1. mTOR抑制剂
mTOR抑制剂常用于乳腺癌或者造血干细胞移植过程中抑制免疫功能[57]。如上文所述,部分化疗药物处理过的细胞中PI3K/Akt/mTOR通路会被过度激活,因此抑制mTOR复合物能够减少原始卵泡的激活[58]。研究发现,雷帕霉素能在体外和体内诱导rpS6及其磷酸化形式表达水平降低,并保护原始卵泡池[59]。因此,mTOR抑制剂可能是一种保护卵巢功能的较有潜力的添加剂。
3.2.2. PI3K/PTEN/Akt通路抑制剂
碲化合物AS101是一种免疫抑制剂,主要作用于PI3K/PTEN/Akt通路,可减少Akt和rpS6磷酸化[60]。研究发现,联用了AS101和环磷酰胺的BALB/c小鼠产仔数和后代数与对照组接近,且均大于单用环磷酰胺组,说明AS101具有保留小鼠卵巢功能的潜力[57]。
此外,在卵巢“耗竭效应”的理论中,AMH水平降低也可能解除对原始卵泡的抑制,导致卵泡过度激活。研究者发现AMH能够显著保护环磷酰胺、铂类和阿霉素引起的卵巢损伤,其中针对阿霉素致卵巢损伤的保护作用最为显著[16]。
3.3. 保护卵巢基质血管及其他疗法
3.3.1. 粒细胞集落刺激因子
粒细胞集落刺激因子能够增加微血管密度,保护卵巢间质功能,间接减少卵泡丢失,恢复生育能力,目前在多项体外实验中展示出了良好的预防潜力[2]。
3.3.2. 干细胞疗法
干细胞疗法也是保护卵巢较有前景的一种方案[61-62]。胚胎外干细胞和诱导多能干细胞等具有分化成为颗粒细胞的潜能;而间充质干细胞则能够分泌生长因子,保护受损卵巢。此外,生殖系干细胞的发现打破了人们既往认为的卵母细胞池从出生后就固定的观念。生殖系干细胞能够分化为卵母细胞,有助于恢复卵巢功能。这项研究已经在小鼠体内取得进展[63],但如何在人体内实现仍是一大挑战。
3.3.3. 人工卵巢
人工卵巢是一种新兴技术,将窦前卵泡与卵巢皮质分离,再嵌入人工制造的生物支架中,从而形成有功能的卵巢组织。除了分离的卵泡,胚胎干细胞、诱导多能干细胞和卵原干细胞分化形成的卵泡也可放入人工卵巢内[64],同时加入其他添加物,如生长因子和凋亡抑制因子等[65]。人工卵巢能够防止肿瘤细胞植入的潜在风险,并能够恢复卵巢的内分泌功能,尤其对于青春期前的癌症患者来说是能安全保留生育能力的最佳选项。目前这项技术已经在小鼠体内获得成功[66],但仍需要体内试验来证实其有效性。
4. 结语
迄今,已经有多种方法应用于化疗患者卵巢功能的保护,旨在提高更多女性癌症患者的生活质量,保障患者的生殖健康。以GnRH激动剂为代表的保护卵巢功能的添加剂已取得新进展,干细胞治疗和人工卵巢更是为我们带来了新的希望。
目前,大部分防治卵巢功能损伤的药物仍处于体外研究及动物实验阶段,需要大规模、多中心的临床试验来验证其有效性。但其中的转化仍存在一定的困难:①研究的药物大多作用于卵巢损伤机制中的某一环节,其作用的上下游机制仍不明确。②尽管在动物实验中能够观察到卵泡丢失的减少,但转换至人体尤其在化疗患者中可能获益一般。我们期待药物作用的结局并不仅仅局限于实验室指标的好转,更重要的是长期内分泌功能的维持和妊娠结局的改善。即使是已经进行了大规模临床研究的GnRH激动剂类药物,其疗效仍存在不确定性,只能作为保护卵巢功能的一种选择,而不能代替目前已有的卵巢保护策略。因此,需要开发疗效更为明确、更安全可靠的药物来保护卵巢功能。此外,临床试验的终点究竟如何定义、药物使用的时机和方法都是目前研究的困难之处。
对于有生育意愿的化疗患者,需要做好多学科的合作以及长期的随访跟踪。患者在原发病缓解、化疗结束后至少6个月、停止GnRH激动剂药物治疗后3个月可先尝试妊娠[29]。积极采用辅助生殖技术及激素补充治疗也能使患者获益。随着社会经济发展和医疗技术进步,未来化疗方案愈加精准有效,我们也期待着研发更加安全的化疗药物和更加高效便捷的卵巢保护方案,为更多的癌症患者带来福音。
Acknowledgments
研究得到浙江省尖兵领雁研发攻关计划(2023C03037)支持
Acknowledgments
This work was supported by the Key R&D Program of Zhejiang Province (2023C03037)
[缩略语]
抗原肽转运蛋白体(transporter of antigenic peptide,TAp);细胞周期检测点激酶(cell-cycle checkpoint kinase,CHK);乳腺癌相关基因(breast cancer-related gene,BRCA);微RNA(microRNA,miRNA,miR);抗米勒管激素(anti-Müllerian hormone,AMH);磷脂酰肌醇3-激酶(phosphoinositide 3-kinase,PI3K);第10号染色体上缺失与张力蛋白同源的磷酸酶(phosphatase and tensin homologue deleted on chromosome ten,PTEN);蛋白激酶B(protein kinase B,Akt);磷脂酰肌醇4,5-双磷酸(phosphatidylinositol 4, 5-bisphosphate,PIP2);磷脂酰肌醇三磷酸(phosphatidyl-inositol 1,4,5-triphosphate,PIP3);叉头转录因子O亚型(forkhead box O,FOXO);结节性硬化症蛋白(tuberous sclerosis complex,TSC);哺乳动物雷帕霉素靶蛋白(mammalian target of rapamycin,mTOR);核糖体蛋白S6(ribosomal protein S6,rpS6);促性腺激素释放激素(gonadotropin releasing hormone,GnRH);鞘氨醇-1-磷酸(sphingosine-1-phosphate,S1P);神经酰胺-1-磷酸(ceramide-1-phosphate,C1P);胱天蛋白酶(cysteine aspartic acid specific protease,caspase)
利益冲突声明
所有作者均声明不存在利益冲突
Conflict of Interests
The authors declare that there is no conflict of interests
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