L2 communication apprehension and communicative competence of pre-service English teachers

Abstract

Communication in a foreign language is essential, and it requires an individual's competence in speaking skills. It needs to be improved to enhance an effective means of communication. The current study investigates the relationship between L2 communication apprehension and communicative competence of pre-service EFL teachers studying at a state university in Türkiye. The quantitative research approach focuses on understanding pre-service teachers' perceptions regarding communication apprehension and communicative competence. The study included 200 pre-service EFL teachers, with 146 female and 54 male participants. The age range of the participants was between 18 and 34. The results indicate that pre-service EFL teachers have varying levels of communication apprehension and are notably more apprehensive in certain situations. Additionally, the study found that perceived communication competence significantly influences communication apprehension. Some pedagogical strategies are discussed and suggested according to the findings of the study.

1. Introduction

Speaking is among the most essential skills that must be improved for effective communication. However, it is also considered one of the most challenging skills in learning a language, as learners encounter problems while explaining themselves in a foreign language [1]. Speaking anxiety is considered a problematic feature encountered in the area of English as a foreign language [2]. It is believed that communication apprehension may be ‘catastrophic’ in the context of foreign language learning [3]. Ref. [4] lists four kinds of communication apprehension: situational, person-group, context-based, and trait-like. According to McCroskey and Richmond, communication apprehension (CA) is related to “the anxiety or fear when involved in the conversation, whether it is anticipated or genuine, with one interlocutor or more” as cited in [5], (p. 6). It is among the most common kinds of negative motivation as stated by Beatty, McCroskey, and Keisel as cited in Ref. [6]. As Ref. [5], (p. 7) states, situational apprehension refers to “a reaction of an individual toward any individual or group at a given time,” and person-group apprehension “explains the reactions of an individual communicating with a specific individual or as a group”. In contrast, McCroskey claimed that context-based apprehension is “a relatively enduring, personality-type orientation toward communication in a given type of context” as cited in ef. [5][5], (p. 7), and trait-like apprehension is “a relatively enduring, personality-type orientation toward a given mode of communication across a wide variety of contexts” [5], (p. 6).

Communicative competence (CC), for Hymes, on the other hand, is described as “the speaker's ability to participate in a society not only as a speaking member but also as a communicative member” as cited in [7], (p. 184). It is also the ability “to choose among available communicative behaviors” to accomplish one's own “interpersonal goals during an encounter while maintaining the face and line” of “fellow interactants within the constraints of the situation” [8], (p. 198). According to Refs. [9,10], communicative competence is “a synthesis of an underlying system of knowledge and skill needed for communication,” and “knowledge refers to the (conscious or unconscious) knowledge of an individual about language and other aspects of language use” as cited in Ref. [11], (p. 106). For Savignon, communication competence is “an interpersonal rather than an intrapersonal trait” and “context-specific” as cited in Ref. [12], (p. 868).

There are four dimensions of communicative competence: strategic, sociolinguistic, grammatical, and discourse competences [9,13]. According to Refs. [9,14], strategic competence includes knowledge of non-verbal and verbal communication strategies such as guessing, repetition, paraphrasing, reluctance, modifications of messages, and so forth. Sociolinguistic competence comprises knowledge, including conventions and rules underlining proper language use and comprehension in various sociocultural and sociolinguistic conditions. Grammatical competence is mastery of the linguistic code consisting of phonetic, semantic, syntactic, morphological, and vocabulary knowledge as cited in Ref. [15]. For Canale, discourse competence refers to “mastery of rules that determine how forms and meanings are combined to achieve a meaningful unity of spoken or written texts” as cited in Ref. [15], (p. 97).

2. Theoretical background

As communicative competence and communication apprehension are among significant parts of communicating in foreign language learning and teaching, much research mainly concentrates on university students’ perceptions of L2 communicative competence, L2 communication apprehension in terms of some variables as gender, experience in the university and the relationship between communicative competence and communication apprehension and mixed findings have been reported accordingly [5,6,12,[16], [17], [18], [19], [20], [21], [22], [23], [24], [25], [26], [27], [28], [29], [30], [31], [32], [33], [34], [35], [36]].

As an essential part of communication, communicative competence has been one of the significant concerns of studies in foreign language learning. Ref. [16] claims that Turkish language learners have inadequate communicative competence, which emerges from other competences except grammatical competence. Ref. [12] finds out that ELT students, non ELT students, and English teachers' perceptions of communicative competences are not the same. Teachers and students both think that English is learned to have the ability to communicate with the language. Ref. [17] asserts that students' confidence in speaking skills can be supported and enhanced through improving their communicative competence. Besides, EFL students can have the ability to unveil new vocabulary and meanings by developing their communicative competence. Similarly, Ref. [18] declares that EFL students' willingness to communicate in L2 is positively and directly affected by their self-perceived communicative competence. This is the reason why learners should be encouraged to strengthen their communicative and linguistic competences with the help of interaction. In order to provide opportunities for learners to enhance their chance for interaction, teachers could create an atmosphere free from anxiety in the class environment by preparing “cognitively less demanding and psychologically safer tasks” [18], (p. 274). The study also shows that male learners have higher levels of self-perceived communicative competence than their female counterparts. Ref. [19] detects that Turkish EFL learners are motivated and hold a positive attitude towards learning English; nevertheless, they have low levels of self-perceived communicative competence and are willing to communicate. Additionally, they have a high level of communication apprehension. The study indicates a direct relationship between EFL learners’ communicative competence and willingness to communicate, as the former positively influences and develops the latter. It is recommended that chatting online with people all around the world can assist learners in coping with the anxiety of face-to-face communication.

Much research focuses on communication apprehension in the context of foreign language learning, as communication apprehension has been considered a common source of negative motivation [6]. With this aim, Ref. [20] explores the link between EFL students' levels of communication apprehension and participation in extracurricular activities. Furthermore, the study examines participants' views on how extracurricular activities have an impact on their communication skills. It indicates that all participants report the help of participation in extracurricular activities with decreasing communication apprehension and enhancing their communication skills. Ref. [5] investigates the communication apprehension of Thai high school students studying in an English Program when communicating in English and Thai languages. Results reveal that most students have an average level of communication apprehension in their mother tongue but a high level of communication apprehension in English. Dimension of meetings has the highest communication apprehension score in English. The study concludes that there is a correlation between students’ academic achievement and their communication apprehension. In the same vein, McCroskey and McCroskey pointed out that communication apprehension is negatively correlated with language achievement and willingness to communicate as cited in Ref. [18].

Furthermore, Ref. [21] examines first-year and second-year MA students' communication apprehension in a second language, and results show an average level of trait-like communication apprehension among all participants, while students in year one have a higher level of communication apprehension than students in year two, however; it indicates no statistically significant difference. Ref. [22] states that most students have a high level of communication apprehension due to the fear of being evaluated and various personality traits like introversion and extraversion. The result of the study reveals that apprehension affects language learning in a negative way. Ref. [23] investigates whether there is a significant difference between an individual's year in college, gender, and communication apprehension. The research finding indicates a statistically significant difference between students' gender and communication apprehension, while it does not show any significant differences in terms of students' year in university. To be more specific, women experience a higher level of communication apprehension than men do, as they pay more attention to how people perceive them. No significant difference is found in terms of time one spends in university and communication apprehension. Similarly, Ref. [24] draws the same conclusion: Female students have more communication apprehension than their male counterparts, and male students are less hesitant and willing to join class discussions. Besides, Ref. [25] also displays that male participants have lower oral communication apprehension than female higher-education students. The females experience more apprehension in the meeting factor, whereas they are the least apprehensive in the group talking factor. Other research [26] explores whether electrical engineering students have communication apprehension. The study also aims to determine students' general performance in oral presentation skills, their perceived communication competence, and the possible link between these dimensions. The results of the research show that students have a moderate level of anxiety in communication. However, their communicative competence is independent of this. Students with a higher perception of communicative competence seem to have less communication anxiety.

Moreover, Ref. [27] investigates the possible correlation between EFL learners' communication apprehension, foreign language anxiety, and Extramural English engagement. Findings indicate that extramural English engagement is one of the predictors of communication apprehension and decreased L2 anxiety. Among the Extramural English activities, speaking-based activities and playing video games are strongly related to L2 anxiety, and Extramural English activities have a relationship with only L2 speaking anxiety apart from listening, reading, and writing anxiety. Ref. [28] examines pre-service EFL teachers' willingness to communicate and their speaking anxiety at a university in Türkiye. The results indicate a high level of willingness to communicate and an average level of speaking anxiety in the students. They also demonstrate that willingness to communicate influences students' communication apprehension. It is claimed that students' anxiety in speaking may diminish as their grade level increases. The study suggests that students should speak a foreign language more frequently and continuously to decrease their communication apprehension. Ref. [29] classifies the factors causing prospective ESL teachers' speaking anxiety during oral presentations into nine dimensions: stressful classroom environment, topic/content anxiety, technological anxiety, feelings, self-perceptions, students' beliefs, test anxiety, fear of negative evaluation, and communication apprehension. It is asserted that there is a need to develop the curriculum for speaking courses in higher education with the help of technology. While planning oral presentation classes, instructors should be aware of communication apprehension and take this issue into consideration. Teaching is a complicated and demanding profession, so teachers should engage in professional development programs to succeed [30]. Ref. [31] explores the levels of EFL learners' communication apprehension in English and the influence of playing online games on learners’ communication apprehension. The findings of the study reveal that learners have a moderate level of communication apprehension. It is also observed that communication apprehension levels decrease significantly among learners who choose to play online games in English. The study suggests that English teachers should support learners in playing online games in English to overcome their communication apprehension and improve their speaking skills and overall language proficiency.

A few studies have been based on this issue of the relationship between communication apprehension and communicative competence in foreign language learning. Specifically, Ref. [32] examines whether communicative competence and communication apprehension have an essential impact on foreign language learning through the categories of willingness to communicate, social context, perfection and imperfection of linguistic repertoire, teaching techniques, and grammatical construction. The study displays a strong correlation between the dimensions of oral communication apprehension and self-perceived oral communication competence and students' academic success. Additionally, learners with high communicative competence communicate freely with strangers when talking to their acquaintances. Ref. [18] states that communication apprehension and communication are strong predictors of willingness to communicate; however, motivational factors affect willingness to communicate indirectly. Similarly, Ref. [33] acknowledges that self-perceived communication apprehension and communication competence indirectly have an effect on willingness to communicate. Besides, language learning communication strategies directly influence motivation, self-perceived communication competence, and willingness to communicate. Another research [34] examines undergraduate students' communication apprehension and their levels of self-perceived communicative competence in Saudi Arabia. The results of the study reveal that students have an average level of communication apprehension and communicative competence. Moreover, a moderately significant link exists between students' communication apprehension and self-perceived communicative competence. Ref. [35] investigates the effect of communicative competence and communication apprehension on high school students' performance in speaking activities. The findings display that communication apprehension and communicative competence significantly influence participants' performance in speaking activities. Ref. [36] explores the perceptions of undergraduates studying marketing in Malaysia towards speaking in English. The study also aims to understand whether there is a significant relationship between communication apprehension and the communicative competence of the participants. Findings indicate a significant correlation between communication apprehension and communicative competence. Besides, participants’ levels of communication apprehension and communicative competence are at a moderate level. It is suggested that students and faculty members investigate and explain the challenges that influence oral communication in English and that the faculty find ways to decrease communication apprehension.

This study was designed to fill the gap in the literature by investigating the effect of pre-service EFL teachers' communicative competence on their communication anxiety. It also aimed to determine the variables affecting pre-service teachers' communicative competence and communication anxiety levels in English as a foreign language. Given the limitations and contradictory findings reported by previous research, it is clear that there is a need for continued study of communication competence and communication apprehension in the context of second language learning. Therefore, it is necessary to conduct a study to make new contributions to the literature with empirical findings and evaluate them within previous research's findings. With this aim, the current study seeks to find responses to the questions as follows.

• 1.What are the overall levels of communication apprehension and communicative competence of the pre-service EFL teachers?
• 2.Are there statistical differences in communication apprehension scores among pre-service EFL teachers based on demographic characteristics such as grades and gender?
• 3.Does pre-service English language teachers' communicative competence predict their L2 communication anxiety levels?

3. Methodology

3.1. Research design

The overall design of the present study is based on the quantitative research method. It is designed to explore the relationship between communication apprehension and communicative competence of pre-service EFL teachers in addition to examining communication apprehension concerning grades and gender. Moreover, ethical considerations were paramount throughout the research process. All participants were provided detailed information about the study's purpose, procedures, and potential implications. Informed consent was obtained from each participant before their involvement, affirming their voluntary participation and understanding of their rights within the study.

3.2. Participants

In the study, the convenience sampling method, which was emphasized by Ref. [37] and meant selecting participants who are convenient and accessible in terms of time, money, and effort, which should be considered in scientific studies, was preferred. Moreover, as highlighted by Ref. [37], studies summarizing characteristics such as preferences, abilities, and perceptions need at least 100 participants to reach a satisfactory conclusion. Therefore, a total of 200 prospective English language teachers studying an English Language Teaching program at a Turkish state university located in the eastern part of Türkiye, including 146 (%73,0) women and 54 (%27,0) men, were involved in the current study. Careful consideration was given to ensure a diverse representation of the participants in terms of gender and academic progression. The participants were drawn from various academic levels: 47 (%23,5) were first-year students, 41 (%20,5) were second-year students, 57 (%28,5) were third-year students, and 55 (%27,5) were fourth-year students. There is a significant difference between the gender of the participants. In the faculty and programme where the study was conducted, the number of female students is higher than that of male students. This difference is because the study was conducted with education faculty students. In Türkiye, since teaching is mainly perceived as a profession suitable for women, faculties of education are mostly preferred by female students [38].

3.3. Instruments

The research utilized meticulously developed instruments with three separate sections to fully capture each aspect of the participants’ experiences and competences. These sections included a participant information form that requested demographic information, including age, gender, educational background, the “Personal Report of Communication Apprehension” scale, and the “Communicative Competence” scale.

3.3.1. Personal report of communication apprehension scale

“Personal Report of Communication Apprehension” (PRCA), which was developed by Ref. [39] and has been used in many different contexts and subjects to determine the degree of communication apprehension since then, was employed. Participants were asked to score 24 items on this instrument (PRCA) on a Likert-type scale, from strongly disagree to strongly agree. Higher scores indicate greater levels of apprehension within the respective sub-dimensions. The instrument provides an overall measure of communication apprehension and facilitates insights into four distinct dimensions of communication apprehension: Public Speaking Apprehension (PSA) involves the items reflecting the unease experienced when speaking in front of a group. The items of Meeting and Group Discussion Apprehension (MGDA) pertain to discomfort in participating in meetings or group discussions. The third sub-dimension, Interpersonal Communication Apprehension (ICA), captures apprehension related to one-on-one interactions. Small Group Communication Apprehension (SGCA) focuses on apprehension within small group settings. The classification of respondents into categories such as low, moderate, or high communication apprehension is used to interpret the results. As for the reliability analysis, while the Cronbach Alpha value for the whole scale was 0.94, for the sub-dimensions, it was 0.82 for Group Discussion, respectively; 0.86 for Meetings, 0.85 for Interpersonal, and 0.87 for Public Speaking in the present study.

3.3.2. Communicative competence scale

The second tool is the “Communicative Competence Scale,” developed by Ref. [8] to assess individuals’ proficiency in various aspects of communicative competence. It was designed on a Likert-type scale that ranges from strongly agree (5) to strongly disagree (1) and involves 36 items in total. For the 36-item instrument, Ref. [8] reported a 0.96 coefficient alpha. Instead of dividing the scale into subscales, the researchers [40] recommended using the instrument as a composite measure of communication skills. Therefore, the scale was analyzed unidimensionally in this study, and the Cronbach Alpha value was found to be 0.89 for 36 items in this study.

3.4. Data collection procedures

Data were collected from 200 questionnaires from a Turkish state university in the fall semester of the 2022/2023 academic year to achieve the study's aims by distributing the questionnaires face-to-face using pen and paper. All participants were informed about how to fill out the related scales appropriately and guaranteed that their personal information and responses would be kept confidential to ensure the study's dependability. It took about 20 min to fill in the questionnaires and hand them to the researchers.

3.5. Statistical analysis

The data collected through questionnaires was analyzed using descriptive and inferential statistics through the SPSS 24 statistical package due to the aims of the study. The reliability of the two scales was also affirmed, as mentioned above. Before conducting descriptive statistical analysis, the collected data were checked against the basic assumptions of the statistical tools used. In other words, Kolmogorov-Smirnov Tests were applied to check whether the data was properly distributed and to ensure the other assumptions of normal distribution, kurtosis and skewness values, and histogram graph were employed. Finally, the relationship between the variables was tested in line with the T-test, regression analyses, ANOVA, and post hoc methods. The Tukey HSD test was conducted following ANOVA to discover the group causing the difference. The significance level was accepted as 5 % (p = 0.05) throughout the study.

3.6. Ethics

All participants were provided detailed information about the study's purpose, procedures, and potential implications. Informed consent was obtained from each participant before their involvement, affirming their voluntary participation and understanding of their rights within the study. Besides, they were assured of anonymity and confidentiality. The study received approval from the Institutional Review Board (Ethics Committee) of Inonu University (Identification code 09/02/2024-E.408 007), adhering to ethical principles.

4. Results

4.1. Research question 1: What are the overall levels of communication apprehension and communicative competence of the pre-service EFL teachers?

Scores of communication apprehension may range from 24 to 120. The scale suggests that the higher the scores, the higher the level of anxiety is considered. According to the proposed scoring, subjects under the score of 51 are accepted as having a very low level of CA. Subjects with scores between 51 and 80 are accepted as average, and subjects with scores over 80 have high levels of CA. The results of both general communication apprehension and communication competence of prospective teachers are shown in Table 1.

Table 1.

The overall levels of communication apprehension and communication competence of the pre-service EFL teachers.

	N	Min	Max	Mean	SD
Group discussion apprehension	194	6.00	30.00	16.90	5.91
Meetings apprehension	191	6.00	30.00	16.38	5.62
Interpersonal (dyadic) apprehension	193	6.00	29.00	14.67	5.55
Public Speaking apprehension	192	6.00	30.00	15.95	6.05
Overall Communication apprehension	178	24.00	114.00	63.73	20.63
Communicative competence	160	2.17	4.61	3.51	5.91

The descriptive data suggests that the pre-service EFL teachers who participated in this study indicated moderate levels of communication anxiety in all communication contexts tested (Group Discussion, Meetings, Interpersonal, Public Speaking, and Overall Communication Apprehension). Their test results suggest that individuals feel anxious or uneasy to a moderate level when speaking in public or engaging in interpersonal interactions. The average score for communication anxiety is 63.73. This score represents the overall level of apprehension among the students in various communication scenarios. It is now time to consider the scores of each dimension separately and compare them to one another to identify the settings that the pre-service English teachers were particularly anxious about. Group Discussion Apprehension score of 16.90 is considered average. This score shows that generally speaking, English language learners report feeling apprehensive when participating in group conversations. Group conversations sometimes involve exchanging ideas, engaging in discussions, and communicating with peers, all of which might cause a small quantity of tension or discomfort. Meetings Apprehension score of 16.38 is regarded as average. It also demonstrates that learners often have similar anxiety levels when participating in meetings. Discussion sessions sometimes entail formal talks, presentations, and the sharing of information, all of which might be stressful. The average score for Interpersonal (Dyadic) Apprehension is 14.67. Compared to the other circumstances, this score shows a considerably lower level of apprehension. Due to these interactions' more intimate and personal nature, learners seem to feel a little more comfortable interacting one-on-one. The average score for Public Speaking Apprehension is 15.95. This dimension captures students’ anxiety before speaking in front of a larger group of people. The score is lower than interpersonal apprehension but higher than apprehension in group talks and meetings. This result may indicate that group talks and formal meetings are less stressful for students than one-on-one contacts, but public speaking is more stressful for them (Table 1).

The Communicative Competence Scale score of 3.51 reveals that, on average, pre-service teachers believe they have a moderate level of communicative ability. This may indicate that they have a good amount of confidence in their ability to speak English successfully. This finding supports the idea that pre-service EFL teachers believe that their competence in English is just beyond mere linguistic proficiency. Pre-service teachers acknowledging their moderate communicative competence level demonstrates a level of self-awareness. This awareness can be harnessed to identify their strengths and areas requiring improvement, thus guiding their professional development (Table 1).

4.2. Research question 2: Are there statistical differences in communication apprehension scores among pre-service EFL teachers based on demographic characteristics such as grades and gender?

As the table (Table 2) shows, gender is not an effective factor in communication apprehension. The lack of a statistically significant difference in communication apprehension between male and female pre-service teachers shows that generally speaking, men and women feel similarly uneasy and anxious in various communication circumstances. This finding is important because it sheds doubt on the notion that communication anxiety is innately influenced by gender and highlights common difficulties that people may experience regardless of gender.

Table 2.

The effect of gender on communication apprehension of the pre-service EFL teachers.

Communicative Apprehension	Gender	N	Mean	SD	t	p
	Female	131	2.57	0.79	0.383	0.70
	Male	47	2,51	0.92

The study revealed a significant finding: a statistical difference between the student grades regarding communication apprehension (Table 3). Further analysis using post-hoc tests has shown that second-grade pre-service teachers are primarily responsible for the difference. This finding has significant implications for English Language Teaching (ELT) practices and suggests potential differences in communicative apprehension between grade levels. According to statistics on communication apprehension scores, students at various academic levels report variable degrees of anxiety and discomfort when communicating. Students in the second grade were the main contributors to this difference, indicating a distinct trend of stress in this particular grade.

Table 3.

The results of the ANOVA on communicative apprehension regarding grade level.

Variable	Between-Within-subjects	M	SD	Df	MS	F	Sig
Communicative Apprehension	Between Groups	63.73	6.49	3	2.16	3.27	0.022a
	Within Groups		115.06	174	0.66
	Total		121.56	177

^aThe group creating the difference is the second grade.

4.3. Research question 3: Does pre-service English language teachers’ communicative competence predict their L2 communication anxiety levels?

Firstly, Pearson Correlation analysis was performed to test whether there is a relationship between communicative competence and total communicative apprehension and sub-dimensions of communicative apprehension, and the results are presented in the table (Table 4). The table shows that the results reveal meaningful insights into the associations between communicative apprehension and communicative competence. The Pearson correlation coefficients for Group discussion apprehension, meetings apprehension, interpersonal (dyadic) apprehension, public speaking apprehension, and overall communication apprehension, respectively, reveal negative correlations. While the coefficient's absolute value denotes the correlation's strength, the negative sign implies an inverse relationship. The significantly negative coefficients in the present study demonstrate a moderately inverse correlation between communicative skill and all dimensions and total communication apprehension. The negative correlation coefficients indicate that communicative ability declines as communication apprehension increases, and vice versa. In other words, those who see themselves as having lower levels of competence in using the English language for effective communication tend to have higher levels of apprehension in communication instances.

Table 4.

The results of the Pearson correlation analysis.

Sources	N	R	p
Group discussion apprehension	194	−0.485	0.00
Meetings apprehension	191	−0.530	0.00
Interpersonal (dyadic) apprehension	193	−0.592	0.00
Public Speaking apprehension	192	−0.588	0.00
Overall Communication apprehension	178	−0.607	0.00

Since a significant moderate-level inverse correlation between Communication Apprehension and Communicative Competence has been identified, regression analysis was conducted to determine the strength and direction of the relationship and evaluate the amount of change in Communicative Competence associated with a unit change in Communication Apprehension. Consequently, the results of regression analysis were thought to provide a more thorough grasp of the relationship between the variables and offer insights into the future.

Thus, Linear Regression Analysis was conducted to model the relationship between Communication Apprehension and Communicative Competence and to measure the strength of this relationship (Table 5). When the table is examined, the p-value (Sig. = 0.000) indicates that the regression model is statistically significant, which supports the conclusion drawn from the previous analysis. The R² value is 0.368. This value represents the proportion of the variance in the Communication Apprehension that can be explained by the Communicative Competence in the model. In this case, approximately 36.8 % of the variability in the Communication Apprehension can be explained by the Communicative Competence included in the model. The Adjusted R Square value considers the number of predictors and suggests that the model might be a reasonable fit for the data. In other words, Communicative Competence collectively contributes significantly to explaining the variability in Communication Apprehension. The standardized coefficient (Beta) for Communicative Competence is −0.607. This value represents the change in standard deviations of the Communication Apprehension associated with a one-standard-deviation change in the Communicative Competence. It provides a sense of the relative importance of Communicative Competence's effect on the Communication Apprehension. The results indicate that the Communicative Competence has a statistically significant negative effect on the Communication Apprehension. As the value of Communicative Competence increases, the predicted value of Communication Apprehension decreases. The standardized coefficient (Beta) of −0.607 suggests that this relationship is of moderate strength. The results are also consistent with the previous interpretations based on the ANOVA and Model Summary.

Table 5.

The results of the linear regression analysis.

Variables	R	R2	R2adj	SE	t	p	B	β	VIF
Communication Apprehension	0.607	0.368	0.364	0.382	15.72	0.00	6.013		1,000
Communicative Competence				0.108	−9.13	0.00	−0.983	−0.607

5. Discussion

The findings on the degree of EFL pre-service teachers' communicative apprehension and competence reveal that the participants exhibited typical moderate levels of communication apprehension in various interactive contexts such as group discussions, meetings, interpersonal exchanges, and public speaking, as defined by Ref. [4]. This moderate level of apprehension may reflect the common cognitive and emotional challenges that second language learners and users face in both professional and everyday communication situations. Given the responses to the questionnaire items, the relatively reduced apprehension associated with interpersonal interactions suggests that the pre-service teachers find one-to-one interactions less threatening compared to communications in larger meetings. This reduced apprehension could possibly be due to a limited audience, which reduces the perceived pressure of scrutiny and evaluation from multiple listeners. In contrast, apprehension scores associated with group discussions and meetings indicate a higher level of anxiety, possibly as a result of the increased complexity of managing simultaneous conversational exchanges and the formal nature of such interactions. In particular, the finding that public speaking was found to be less anxiety-provoking than group discussions but more anxiety-provoking than dyadic interactions was notable. This result draws attention to the particular challenges posed by speaking in front of large groups, where performance is clearly subject to evaluation by an audience, thus increasing the risks and potential for anxiety. This result does not align with the study [5], which displays high communication apprehension in students' L2 levels. At the same time, it is consistent with the previous research [21,26,28,34,36], indicating moderate apprehension in communication. It could be concluded that the more frequently the students have speaking practices, the less they have communication apprehension [28]. As suggested in the previous literature [29], designing a curriculum for speaking classes, including students’ needs with the help of technology, might efficiently diminish communication apprehension. Considering these results, it is clear that group discussions and meetings frequently cause English language learners to feel apprehensive. This might be due to the formal atmosphere of these settings, the necessity to communicate ideas accurately, and the feeling that other peers or colleagues are watching. Perhaps because learners feel more in control and actively involved in discourse during interpersonal encounters, there seems to be less anxiety in these situations. It is also noteworthy that public speaking apprehension is ranked between interpersonal interaction apprehension and anxiety felt during meetings and group debates. This implies that even if students feel more relaxed speaking in front of a larger audience than in group settings, their communication anxiety is still significantly influenced by their public speaking apprehension.

Furthermore, the research has indicated that pre-service teachers perceive their communicative skills as moderately competent, supported by earlier studies [34,36]. This self-rating indicates an acknowledgment of their significant but incomplete proficiency in English, encompassing linguistic accuracy and the ability to use the language effectively in various social contexts. Nevertheless, this result is inconsistent with the findings of the previous study [16], which asserts that EFL learners do not have adequate communicative competence. Additionally, the self-reported moderate level of communicative competence suggests a stable self-perception of competences, which can be beneficial in fostering a growth mindset. On the other hand, recognizing room for improvement could motivate future teachers towards continuous learning and professional development, which is crucial to adapting to evolving educational needs and diverse classroom environments. The evidence provided by previous studies indicates that foreign language learners’ self-confidence and language proficiency can be increased by practicing [17], and firstly, being aware of their own inadequacies gains importance at this point.

Secondly, the study robustly indicates that gender does not play a significant role in the levels of communication apprehension experienced by pre-service teachers. This finding challenges the pervasive assumption that communication anxiety might inherently differ between genders. This result is not supported by Refs. [23,24], who find that females have a higher level of communication apprehension than males. In addition, different studies in the literature show that male students have more communication apprehension than female students [25]. The results of the study clearly indicate that both male and female pre-service teachers report similar levels of unease and anxiety in communicative settings, suggesting that the root causes of this apprehension are not gender-specific but rather universal across both groups. This insight is thought to be vital as it encourages focusing on more universally applicable strategies or causes in teacher education programs rather than gender-targeted interventions to prevent or reduce pre-service teachers’ communication apprehension problems. The study offers deeper insights for teachers to place a high priority on offering strategies and resources to control apprehension and foster confidence in communicative settings.

Moreover, the significant differences observed across academic grades, particularly the heightened anxiety among second-grade pre-service teachers, demand a targeted educational response. This variation in communication apprehension by grade level may reflect the unique challenges and developmental stages associated with different points in the teacher education curriculum. The high anxiety that emerged in the second-year pre-service teachers may be primarily due to the transitional phase in the academic program, such as the increased expectations in the second-year curriculum, more complex communication tasks, and their first encounter with teacher education courses. More specifically, student teachers may coincide with their initial exposures to practical teaching experiences, heightening anxiety due to actual or perceived gaps in communicative competence. In the English language teacher education program in the country of the study, first-year courses are generally aimed at helping students acquire advanced language skills. However, from the second year onwards, the courses include introductory courses in teacher education, such as approaches and methods of foreign language learning and teaching. This result is not in line with the findings of the previous studies [21,23], which state that there is not a significant difference between communication apprehension and year spent in university. However, it is important because it underlines the importance of educators giving students less cognitively demanding and psychologically safer tasks as highlighted by Ref. [18] particularly in classes where apprehension levels are likely to increase, such as second grade students of this study. Investigating the variables that might affect this variation is crucial. Students in the second grade can be adjusting to new communication circumstances, honing their language abilities, or experiencing group interactions different from those in earlier grades. Additionally, factors like self-awareness, cognitive development, and classroom dynamics could have an impact on how they experience apprehension.

Finally, the present study provides substantial evidence that there is an inverse relationship between communicative competence and various forms of communication apprehension among pre-service English teachers, and communicative competence is a strong predictor of communication apprehension. This relationship is evidenced across multiple contexts, such as group discussions, meetings, interpersonal interactions, public speaking, and overall communication scenarios. This is a significant discovery consistent with the previous research [26,34,36]. As the result of regression analysis indicates, the standardized beta coefficient of −0.607 underscores this relationship with moderate strength, indicating that improvements in communicative competence are likely associated with reductions in the apprehension experienced by these future educators when they engage in communicative tasks. It became clear that the inverse correlation supports the hypothesis that higher levels of communicative proficiency might alleviate the anxiety associated with speaking tasks, often perceived as high-stakes by pre-service teachers. The consistency of this result with both the ANOVA and the Model Summary reinforces the robustness of the findings. It aligns with prior research suggesting that a proficient command of language can buffer the psychological stress related to communication in a second language [36].

6. Conclusions

This study aimed to investigate the communication patterns of pre-service English as a Foreign Language (EFL) teachers. The primary focus was discovering many aspects of communication apprehension and competence among pre-service EFL teachers. To this end, the overall communication apprehension and competence levels were first examined. Following this, the potential effects of some demographic characteristics, such as grades and gender, were analyzed. Finally, the predictive effect of pre-service English language teachers’ communicative competence on their second language (L2) communication apprehension was analyzed. This structured approach provided thorough insights into the complex process of communication factors within the context of language teaching education. The results indicated average levels of communicative competence and communication apprehension of pre-service English language teachers.

Moreover, it showed that gender is not a significant factor in pre-service EFL teachers' communication apprehension, while the second-grade variable impacts students' communication apprehension. Besides, the study revealed that pre-service English language teachers’ communication apprehension predicts their L2 communicative competence levels. This result is considered to contribute to the progress of the literature in this field by ensuring a detailed understanding of the link between the variables.

Given its new insights, the current research has implications for EFL pre-service teachers and teacher educators in foreign language education. Specifically, pre-service English language teachers may realize the reasons for communication apprehension and try to diminish it in their careers. Moreover, this research recommends that teacher educators look for practical ways to overcome speaking-related difficulties in teacher training programs. Emphasizing comprehensive training that equips all pre-service teachers with strategies to manage anxiety and bolster communicative confidence is essential. Such an approach ensures that educational efforts inclusively address the common communicative challenges pre-service teachers face, regardless of gender.

Further research must identify the reasons for communication apprehension when speaking a foreign language. The mediating role of educational background and demographics in pre-service teachers’ communication apprehension can be investigated in future studies. In conclusion, the study underscores the importance of viewing communicative competence not merely as a set of linguistic skills but as a complex construct that includes psychological preparedness and confidence.

Despite efforts to decrease the limitations of the study, some still exist. Firstly, the sample of this research restricts the generalizability of the findings. This study is limited only to 200 pre-service English language teachers of the English Language Teaching program. Secondly, the study was conducted only at a state university in Türkiye. Thirdly, it involves two quantitative data collection instruments, five-point Likert-type scales. For these reasons, the results of this research lead to several recommendations for future research. First, it certainly requires future examination, including more diverse samples with a larger group of participants. Samples can be included from those from different educational backgrounds, not only from pre-service English language teachers but also from those learning English as a foreign language. Besides, future studies can be conducted at a private university or comparative research between state and private universities. For further studies, similar research about the relationship between communication apprehension and communicative competence is recommended using different research tools like diaries, semi-structured interviews, and observations or mixed-methods approaches could contribute to a better understanding of the issue.

Data availability statement

The datasets generated and analyzed during the current study are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.

Informed voluntary consent form

We invite you to the research titled “L2 Communication Apprehension and Communicative Competence of Pre-Service English Teachers” conducted by Gülten Genç and Emine Kuluşaklı. This research aims to conduct a scientific study. You are asked to spend approximately 15–20 min to fill in the questionnaire. Participation in this study is completely voluntary. In order to achieve the purpose of the study, you are expected to answer all the questions completely, without being under anyone's pressure or suggestion, and sincerely giving the answers that best suit you. Reading and approving this form will mean that you agree to participate in the research. However, you also have the right not to participate in the study or to discontinue it at any time after participating. The information obtained from this study will be used entirely for research purposes and your personal information will be kept confidential; However, your data may be used for publication purposes. If you need more information now or later, apart from the information given about the purpose of the research, you can ask the researcher now or contact the researcher at genc@inonu.edu.tr. If you would like general/specific results to be shared with you when the research is completed, please notify the researcher.

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CRediT authorship contribution statement

Emine Kuluşaklı: Writing – original draft, Investigation. Gülten Genç: Methodology, Data curation, Conceptualization.

Declaration of generative AI and AI-assisted technologies in the writing process

During the preparation of this work the author(s) used GRAMMARLY in order to improve the quality of language. After using this tool/service, the author(s) reviewed and edited the content as needed and take full responsibility for the content of the publication.

Declaration of competing interest

The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.

Appendix A. Supplementary data

The following are the Supplementary data to this article: