Skip to main content
Biochemical Journal logoLink to Biochemical Journal
. 1995 May 1;307(Pt 3):617–629. doi: 10.1042/bj3070617

The transcriptional regulation of the preproenkephalin gene.

G Weisinger 1
PMCID: PMC1136696  PMID: 7741689

Full text

PDF
617

Images in this article

Selected References

These references are in PubMed. This may not be the complete list of references from this article.

  1. Ahima R. S., Garcia M. M., Harlan R. E. Glucocorticoid regulation of preproenkephalin gene expression in the rat forebrain. Brain Res Mol Brain Res. 1992 Nov;16(1-2):119–127. doi: 10.1016/0169-328x(92)90201-l. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  2. Ahima R. S., Harlan R. E. Charting of type II glucocorticoid receptor-like immunoreactivity in the rat central nervous system. Neuroscience. 1990;39(3):579–604. doi: 10.1016/0306-4522(90)90244-x. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  3. Ahima R., Krozowski Z., Harlan R. Type I corticosteroid receptor-like immunoreactivity in the rat CNS: distribution and regulation by corticosteroids. J Comp Neurol. 1991 Nov 15;313(3):522–538. doi: 10.1002/cne.903130312. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  4. Aloyo V. J. Preproenkephalin A gene expression in rat pineal. Neuroendocrinology. 1991 Dec;54(6):594–598. doi: 10.1159/000125965. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  5. Anderson D. J., Axel R. A bipotential neuroendocrine precursor whose choice of cell fate is determined by NGF and glucocorticoids. Cell. 1986 Dec 26;47(6):1079–1090. doi: 10.1016/0092-8674(86)90823-8. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  6. Baran N., Lapidot A., Manor H. Formation of DNA triplexes accounts for arrests of DNA synthesis at d(TC)n and d(GA)n tracts. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1991 Jan 15;88(2):507–511. doi: 10.1073/pnas.88.2.507. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  7. Batter D. K., Kessler J. A. Region-specific regulation of preproenkephalin mRNA in cultured astrocytes. Brain Res Mol Brain Res. 1991 Aug;11(1):65–69. doi: 10.1016/0169-328x(91)90022-p. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  8. Bayon A., Shoemaker W. J., Bloom F. E., Mauss A., Guillemin R. Perinatal development of the endorphin- and enkephalin-containing systems in the rat brain. Brain Res. 1979 Dec 21;179(1):93–101. doi: 10.1016/0006-8993(79)90493-1. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  9. Beato M. Gene regulation by steroid hormones. Cell. 1989 Feb 10;56(3):335–344. doi: 10.1016/0092-8674(89)90237-7. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  10. Behar O. Z., Ovadia H., Polakiewicz R. D., Abramsky O., Rosen H. Regulation of proenkephalin A messenger ribonucleic acid levels in normal B lymphocytes: specific inhibition by glucocorticoid hormones and superinduction by cycloheximide. Endocrinology. 1991 Aug;129(2):649–655. doi: 10.1210/endo-129-2-649. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  11. Behar O., Ovadia H., Polakiewicz R. D., Rosen H. Lipopolysaccharide induces proenkephalin gene expression in rat lymph nodes and adrenal glands. Endocrinology. 1994 Jan;134(1):475–481. doi: 10.1210/endo.134.1.8275961. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  12. Biguet N. F., Buda M., Lamouroux A., Samolyk D., Mallet J. Time course of the changes of TH mRNA in rat brain and adrenal medulla after a single injection of reserpine. EMBO J. 1986 Feb;5(2):287–291. doi: 10.1002/j.1460-2075.1986.tb04211.x. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  13. Birdsall N. J., Hulme E. C. C fragment of lipotropin has a high affinity for brain opiate receptors. Nature. 1976 Apr 29;260(5554):793–795. doi: 10.1038/260793a0. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  14. Black I. B., Adler J. E., Dreyfus C. F., Friedman W. F., LaGamma E. F., Roach A. H. Biochemistry of information storage in the nervous system. Science. 1987 Jun 5;236(4806):1263–1268. doi: 10.1126/science.2884727. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  15. Borsook D., Falkowski O., Burstein R., Strassman A., Konradi C., Dauber A., Comb M., Hyman S. E. Stress-induced regulation of a human proenkephalin-beta-galactosidase fusion gene in the hypothalamus of transgenic mice. Mol Endocrinol. 1994 Jan;8(1):116–125. doi: 10.1210/mend.8.1.8152426. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  16. Borsook D., Konradi C., Falkowski O., Comb M., Hyman S. E. Molecular mechanisms of stress-induced proenkephalin gene regulation: CREB interacts with the proenkephalin gene in the mouse hypothalamus and is phosphorylated in response to hyperosmolar stress. Mol Endocrinol. 1994 Feb;8(2):240–248. doi: 10.1210/mend.8.2.8170480. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  17. Borsook D., Konradi C., Falkowski O., Comb M., Hyman S. E. Molecular mechanisms of stress-induced proenkephalin gene regulation: CREB interacts with the proenkephalin gene in the mouse hypothalamus and is phosphorylated in response to hyperosmolar stress. Mol Endocrinol. 1994 Feb;8(2):240–248. doi: 10.1210/mend.8.2.8170480. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  18. Borsook D., Rosen H., Collard M., Dressler H., Herrup K., Comb M. J., Hyman S. E. Expression and regulation of a proenkephalin beta-galactosidase fusion gene in the reproductive system of transgenic mice. Mol Endocrinol. 1992 Sep;6(9):1502–1512. doi: 10.1210/mend.6.9.1435791. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  19. Branch A. D., Unterwald E. M., Lee S. E., Kreek M. J. Quantitation of preproenkephalin mRNA levels in brain regions from male Fischer rats following chronic cocaine treatment using a recently developed solution hybridization assay. Brain Res Mol Brain Res. 1992 Jul;14(3):231–238. doi: 10.1016/0169-328x(92)90178-e. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  20. Brooks P. J., Funabashi T., Kleopoulos S. P., Mobbs C. V., Pfaff D. W. Cell-specific expression of preproenkephalin intronic heteronuclear RNA in the rat forebrain. Brain Res Mol Brain Res. 1993 Jul;19(1-2):22–30. doi: 10.1016/0169-328x(93)90144-e. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  21. Chao H. M., McEwen B. S. Glucocorticoid regulation of neuropeptide mRNAs in the rat striatum. Brain Res Mol Brain Res. 1991 Mar;9(4):307–311. doi: 10.1016/0169-328x(91)90077-b. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  22. Chao H. M., McEwen B. S. Glucocorticoid regulation of preproenkephalin messenger ribonucleic acid in the rat striatum. Endocrinology. 1990 Jun;126(6):3124–3130. doi: 10.1210/endo-126-6-3124. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  23. Chu H. M., Fischer W. H., Osborne T. F., Comb M. J. NF-I proteins from brain interact with the proenkephalin cAMP inducible enhancer. Nucleic Acids Res. 1991 May 25;19(10):2721–2728. doi: 10.1093/nar/19.10.2721. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  24. Claycomb W. C. Biochemical aspects of cardiac muscle differentiation. Deoxyribonucleic acid synthesis and nuclear and cytoplasmic deoxyribonucleic acid polymerase activity. J Biol Chem. 1975 May 10;250(9):3229–3235. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  25. Claycomb W. C. Biochemical aspects of cardiac muscle differentiation. Possible control of deoxyribonucleic acid synthesis and cell differentiation by adrenergic innervation and cyclic adenosine 3':5'-monophosphate. J Biol Chem. 1976 Oct 10;251(19):6082–6089. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  26. Claycomb W. C. Cardiac-muscle hypertrophy. Differentiation and growth of the heart cell during development. Biochem J. 1977 Dec 15;168(3):599–601. doi: 10.1042/bj1680599. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  27. Comb M., Birnberg N. C., Seasholtz A., Herbert E., Goodman H. M. A cyclic AMP- and phorbol ester-inducible DNA element. 1986 Sep 25-Oct 1Nature. 323(6086):353–356. doi: 10.1038/323353a0. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  28. Comb M., Goodman H. M. CpG methylation inhibits proenkephalin gene expression and binding of the transcription factor AP-2. Nucleic Acids Res. 1990 Jul 11;18(13):3975–3982. doi: 10.1093/nar/18.13.3975. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  29. Comb M., Herbert E., Crea R. Partial characterization of the mRNA that codes for enkephalins in bovine adrenal medulla and human pheochromocytoma. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1982 Jan;79(2):360–364. doi: 10.1073/pnas.79.2.360. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  30. Comb M., Liston D., Martin M., Rosen H., Herbert E. Expression of the human proenkephalin gene in mouse pituitary cells: accurate and efficient mRNA production and proteolytic processing. EMBO J. 1985 Dec 1;4(12):3115–3122. doi: 10.1002/j.1460-2075.1985.tb04053.x. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  31. Comb M., Mermod N., Hyman S. E., Pearlberg J., Ross M. E., Goodman H. M. Proteins bound at adjacent DNA elements act synergistically to regulate human proenkephalin cAMP inducible transcription. EMBO J. 1988 Dec 1;7(12):3793–3805. doi: 10.1002/j.1460-2075.1988.tb03264.x. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  32. Comb M., Seeburg P. H., Adelman J., Eiden L., Herbert E. Primary structure of the human Met- and Leu-enkephalin precursor and its mRNA. Nature. 1982 Feb 25;295(5851):663–666. doi: 10.1038/295663a0. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  33. DeCristofaro J. D., La Gamma E. F. Bimodal regulation of adrenal opiate peptides by cholinergic mechanisms. Neuroscience. 1990;35(1):203–210. doi: 10.1016/0306-4522(90)90135-q. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  34. DeCristofaro J. D., Weisinger G., LaGamma E. F. Cholinergic regulation of rat preproenkephalin RNA in the adrenal medulla. Brain Res Mol Brain Res. 1993 Apr;18(1-2):133–140. doi: 10.1016/0169-328x(93)90182-o. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  35. Donovan D. M., Takemura M., O'Hara B. F., Brannock M. T., Uhl G. R. Preproenkephalin promoter "cassette" confers brain expression and synaptic regulation in transgenic mice. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1992 Mar 15;89(6):2345–2349. doi: 10.1073/pnas.89.6.2345. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  36. Durkin R. C., Weisinger G., Holloway M. P., La Gamma E. F. Primary sequence of -1436 to +53 bp of the rat preproenkephalin gene putative Z-DNA and regulatory motifs. Biochim Biophys Acta. 1992 Jul 15;1131(3):349–351. doi: 10.1016/0167-4781(92)90040-7. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  37. Eiden L. E., Giraud P., Affolter H. U., Herbert E., Hotchkiss A. J. Alternative modes of enkephalin biosynthesis regulation by reserpine and cyclic AMP in cultured chromaffin cells. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1984 Jul;81(13):3949–3953. doi: 10.1073/pnas.81.13.3949. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  38. Eiden L. E. The enkephalin-containing cell: strategies for polypeptide synthesis and secretion throughout the neuroendocrine system. Cell Mol Neurobiol. 1987 Dec;7(4):339–352. doi: 10.1007/BF00733787. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  39. Farin C. J., Kley N., Höllt V. Mechanisms involved in the transcriptional activation of proenkephalin gene expression in bovine chromaffin cells. J Biol Chem. 1990 Nov 5;265(31):19116–19121. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  40. Fischer-Colbrie R., Diez-Guerra J., Emson P. C., Winkler H. Bovine chromaffin granules: immunological studies with antisera against neuropeptide Y, [Met]enkephalin and bombesin. Neuroscience. 1986 May;18(1):167–174. doi: 10.1016/0306-4522(86)90185-5. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  41. Fischer-Colbrie R., Iacangelo A., Eiden L. E. Neural and humoral factors separately regulate neuropeptide Y, enkephalin, and chromogranin A and B mRNA levels in rat adrenal medulla. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1988 May;85(9):3240–3244. doi: 10.1073/pnas.85.9.3240. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  42. Folkesson R., Monstein H. J., Geijer T., Terenius L. Modulation of proenkephalin A gene expression by cyclic AMP. Brain Res Mol Brain Res. 1989 May;5(3):211–217. doi: 10.1016/0169-328x(89)90037-5. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  43. Franklin S. O., Yoburn B. C., Zhu Y. S., Branch A. D., Robertson H. D., Inturrisi C. E. Preproenkephalin mRNA and enkephalin in normal and denervated adrenals in the Syrian hamster: comparison with central nervous system tissues. Brain Res Mol Brain Res. 1991 Jun;10(3):241–250. doi: 10.1016/0169-328x(91)90067-8. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  44. Franklin S. O., Zhu Y. S., Yoburn B. C., Inturrisi C. E. Transsynaptic activity regulates proenkephalin and tyrosine hydroxylase gene expression and the response to reserpine in the hamster adrenal. Mol Pharmacol. 1991 Oct;40(4):515–522. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  45. Garrett J. E., Collard M. W., Douglass J. O. Translational control of germ cell-expressed mRNA imposed by alternative splicing: opioid peptide gene expression in rat testis. Mol Cell Biol. 1989 Oct;9(10):4381–4389. doi: 10.1128/mcb.9.10.4381. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  46. Garrett J. E., Garrett S. H., Douglass J. A spermatozoa-associated factor regulates proenkephalin gene expression in the rat epididymis. Mol Endocrinol. 1990 Jan;4(1):108–118. doi: 10.1210/mend-4-1-108. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  47. Giraud P., Kowalski C., Barthel F., Becquet D., Renard M., Grino M., Boudouresque F., Loeffler J. P. Striatal proenkephalin turnover and gene transcription are regulated by cyclic AMP and protein kinase C-related pathways. Neuroscience. 1991;43(1):67–79. doi: 10.1016/0306-4522(91)90418-n. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  48. Goldstein A., Tachibana S., Lowney L. I., Hunkapiller M., Hood L. Dynorphin-(1-13), an extraordinarily potent opioid peptide. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1979 Dec;76(12):6666–6670. doi: 10.1073/pnas.76.12.6666. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  49. Goodman R. H. Regulation of neuropeptide gene expression. Annu Rev Neurosci. 1990;13:111–127. doi: 10.1146/annurev.ne.13.030190.000551. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  50. Gubler U., Seeburg P., Hoffman B. J., Gage L. P., Udenfriend S. Molecular cloning establishes proenkephalin as precursor of enkephalin-containing peptides. Nature. 1982 Jan 21;295(5846):206–208. doi: 10.1038/295206a0. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  51. Gustin T., Bachelot T., Verna J. M., Molin L. F., Brunet J. F., Berger F. R., Benabid A. L. Immunodetection of endogenous opioid peptides in human brain tumors and associated cyst fluids. Cancer Res. 1993 Oct 1;53(19):4715–4719. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  52. Harlan R. E. Regulation of neuropeptide gene expression by steroid hormones. Mol Neurobiol. 1988 Fall;2(3):183–200. doi: 10.1007/BF02935345. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  53. Harlan R. E., Shivers B. D., Romano G. J., Howells R. D., Pfaff D. W. Localization of preproenkephalin mRNA in the rat brain and spinal cord by in situ hybridization. J Comp Neurol. 1987 Apr 8;258(2):159–184. doi: 10.1002/cne.902580202. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  54. Hauser K. F., Osborne J. G., Stiene-Martin A., Melner M. H. Cellular localization of proenkephalin mRNA and enkephalin peptide products in cultured astrocytes. Brain Res. 1990 Jul 9;522(2):347–353. doi: 10.1016/0006-8993(90)91482-v. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  55. He X., Rosenfeld M. G. Mechanisms of complex transcriptional regulation: implications for brain development. Neuron. 1991 Aug;7(2):183–196. doi: 10.1016/0896-6273(91)90257-z. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  56. Holloway M. P., La Gamma E. F. Tissue-specific DNaseI hypersensitivity regions are located in the 5'-region of the rat preproenkephalin gene. J Biol Chem. 1992 Oct 5;267(28):19819–19823. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  57. Howells R. D., Kilpatrick D. L., Bailey L. C., Noe M., Udenfriend S. Proenkephalin mRNA in rat heart. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1986 Mar;83(6):1960–1963. doi: 10.1073/pnas.83.6.1960. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  58. Hughes J., Smith T. W., Kosterlitz H. W., Fothergill L. A., Morgan B. A., Morris H. R. Identification of two related pentapeptides from the brain with potent opiate agonist activity. Nature. 1975 Dec 18;258(5536):577–580. doi: 10.1038/258577a0. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  59. Hyman S. E., Comb M., Lin Y. S., Pearlberg J., Green M. R., Goodman H. M. A common trans-acting factor is involved in transcriptional regulation of neurotransmitter genes by cyclic AMP. Mol Cell Biol. 1988 Oct;8(10):4225–4233. doi: 10.1128/mcb.8.10.4225. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  60. Hyman S. E., Comb M., Pearlberg J., Goodman H. M. An AP-2 element acts synergistically with the cyclic AMP- and phorbol ester-inducible enhancer of the human proenkephalin gene. Mol Cell Biol. 1989 Jan;9(1):321–324. doi: 10.1128/mcb.9.1.321. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  61. Iadarola M. J., Douglass J., Civelli O., Naranjo J. R. Differential activation of spinal cord dynorphin and enkephalin neurons during hyperalgesia: evidence using cDNA hybridization. Brain Res. 1988 Jul 12;455(2):205–212. doi: 10.1016/0006-8993(88)90078-9. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  62. Iadarola M. J., Naranjo J. R., Duchemin A. M., Quach T. T. Expression of cholecystokinin and enkephalin mRNA in discrete brain regions. Peptides. 1989 May-Jun;10(3):687–692. doi: 10.1016/0196-9781(89)90160-5. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  63. Inturrisi C. E., Branch A. D., Robertson H. D., Howells R. D., Franklin S. O., Shapiro J. R., Calvano S. E., Yoburn B. C. Glucocorticoid regulation of enkephalins in cultured rat adrenal medulla. Mol Endocrinol. 1988 Jul;2(7):633–640. doi: 10.1210/mend-2-7-633. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  64. Johnson P. F., McKnight S. L. Eukaryotic transcriptional regulatory proteins. Annu Rev Biochem. 1989;58:799–839. doi: 10.1146/annurev.bi.58.070189.004055. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  65. Joshi J. B., Dave H. P. Transactivation of the proenkephalin gene promoter by the Tax1 protein of human T-cell lymphotropic virus type I. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1992 Feb 1;89(3):1006–1010. doi: 10.1073/pnas.89.3.1006. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  66. Joshi J., Sabol S. L. Proenkephalin gene expression in C6 rat glioma cells: potentiation of cyclic adenosine 3',5'-monophosphate-dependent transcription by glucocorticoids. Mol Endocrinol. 1991 Aug;5(8):1069–1080. doi: 10.1210/mend-5-8-1069. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  67. KIRSHNER N. Uptake of catecholamines by a particulate fraction of the adrenal medulla. J Biol Chem. 1962 Jul;237:2311–2317. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  68. Kakidani H., Furutani Y., Takahashi H., Noda M., Morimoto Y., Hirose T., Asai M., Inayama S., Nakanishi S., Numa S. Cloning and sequence analysis of cDNA for porcine beta-neo-endorphin/dynorphin precursor. Nature. 1982 Jul 15;298(5871):245–249. doi: 10.1038/298245a0. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  69. Kanamatsu T., Unsworth C. D., Diliberto E. J., Jr, Viveros O. H., Hong J. S. Reflex splanchnic nerve stimulation increases levels of proenkephalin A mRNA and proenkephalin A-related peptides in the rat adrenal medulla. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1986 Dec;83(23):9245–9249. doi: 10.1073/pnas.83.23.9245. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  70. Karin M., Haslinger A., Holtgreve H., Richards R. I., Krauter P., Westphal H. M., Beato M. Characterization of DNA sequences through which cadmium and glucocorticoid hormones induce human metallothionein-IIA gene. Nature. 1984 Apr 5;308(5959):513–519. doi: 10.1038/308513a0. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  71. Kew D., Kilpatrick D. L. Widespread organ expression of the rat proenkephalin gene during early postnatal development. Mol Endocrinol. 1990 Feb;4(2):337–340. doi: 10.1210/mend-4-2-337. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  72. Kilpatrick D. L., Borland K., Jin D. F. Differential expression of opioid peptide genes by testicular germ cells and somatic cells. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1987 Aug;84(16):5695–5699. doi: 10.1073/pnas.84.16.5695. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  73. Kilpatrick D. L., Howells R. D., Noe M., Bailey L. C., Udenfriend S. Expression of preproenkephalin-like mRNA and its peptide products in mammalian testis and ovary. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1985 Nov;82(21):7467–7469. doi: 10.1073/pnas.82.21.7467. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  74. Kilpatrick D. L., Zinn S. A., Fitzgerald M., Higuchi H., Sabol S. L., Meyerhardt J. Transcription of the rat and mouse proenkephalin genes is initiated at distinct sites in spermatogenic and somatic cells. Mol Cell Biol. 1990 Jul;10(7):3717–3726. doi: 10.1128/mcb.10.7.3717. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  75. Kobierski L. A., Chu H. M., Tan Y., Comb M. J. cAMP-dependent regulation of proenkephalin by JunD and JunB: positive and negative effects of AP-1 proteins. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1991 Nov 15;88(22):10222–10226. doi: 10.1073/pnas.88.22.10222. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  76. Konradi C., Kobierski L. A., Nguyen T. V., Heckers S., Hyman S. E. The cAMP-response-element-binding protein interacts, but Fos protein does not interact, with the proenkephalin enhancer in rat striatum. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1993 Aug 1;90(15):7005–7009. doi: 10.1073/pnas.90.15.7005. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  77. Korner M., Rattner A., Mauxion F., Sen R., Citri Y. A brain-specific transcription activator. Neuron. 1989 Nov;3(5):563–572. doi: 10.1016/0896-6273(89)90266-3. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  78. Krieger D. T., Liotta A. S., Brownstein M. J., Zimmerman E. A. ACTH, beta-lipotropin, and related peptides in brain, pituitary, and blood. Recent Prog Horm Res. 1980;36:277–344. doi: 10.1016/b978-0-12-571136-4.50015-2. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  79. Kuis W., Villiger P. M., Leser H. G., Lotz M. Differential processing of proenkephalin-A by human peripheral blood monocytes and T lymphocytes. J Clin Invest. 1991 Sep;88(3):817–824. doi: 10.1172/JCI115382. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  80. La Gamma E. F., Agarwal B. L., DeCristofaro J. D. Regulation of adrenomedullary preproenkephalin mRNA: effects of hypoglycemia during development. Brain Res Mol Brain Res. 1992 Apr;13(3):189–197. doi: 10.1016/0169-328x(92)90026-8. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  81. La Gamma E. F., De Cristofaro J. D., Agarwal B. L., Weisinger G. Ontogeny of the opiate phenotype: an approach to defining transsynaptic mechanisms at the molecular level in the rat adrenal medulla. Int J Dev Neurosci. 1989;7(5):499–511. doi: 10.1016/0736-5748(89)90009-9. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  82. La Gamma E. F., Goldstein N. K., Snyder J. B., Jr, Weisinger G. Preproenkephalin DNA-binding proteins in the rat: 5' flanking region. Brain Res Mol Brain Res. 1989 Mar;5(2):131–140. doi: 10.1016/0169-328x(89)90004-1. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  83. Lau C., Franklin M., McCarthy L., Pylypiw A., Ross L. L. Thyroid hormone control of preganglionic innervation of the adrenal medulla and chromaffin cell development in the rat. An ultrastructural, morphometric and biochemical evaluation. Brain Res Dev Brain Res. 1988 Nov 1;44(1):109–117. doi: 10.1016/0165-3806(88)90122-8. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  84. Lau C., Ross L. L., Whitmore W. L., Slotkin T. A. Regulation of adrenal chromaffin cell development by the central monoaminergic system: differential control of norepinephrine and epinephrine levels and secretory responses. Neuroscience. 1987 Sep;22(3):1067–1075. doi: 10.1016/0306-4522(87)92981-2. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  85. Laufer R., Changeux J. P. Activity-dependent regulation of gene expression in muscle and neuronal cells. Mol Neurobiol. 1989 Spring-Summer;3(1-2):1–53. doi: 10.1007/BF02935587. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  86. Legon S., Glover D. M., Hughes J., Lowry P. J., Rigby P. W., Watson C. J. The structure and expression of the preproenkephalin gene. Nucleic Acids Res. 1982 Dec 20;10(24):7905–7918. doi: 10.1093/nar/10.24.7905. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  87. Li C. H., Chung D. Isolation and structure of an untriakontapeptide with opiate activity from camel pituitary glands. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1976 Apr;73(4):1145–1148. doi: 10.1073/pnas.73.4.1145. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  88. Lightman S. L., Young W. S., 3rd Influence of steroids on the hypothalamic corticotropin-releasing factor and preproenkephalin mRNA responses to stress. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1989 Jun;86(11):4306–4310. doi: 10.1073/pnas.86.11.4306. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  89. Lillien L. E., Claude P. Nerve growth factor is a mitogen for cultured chromaffin cells. Nature. 1985 Oct 17;317(6038):632–634. doi: 10.1038/317632a0. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  90. Linner K. M., Beyer H. S., Sharp B. M. Induction of the messenger ribonucleic acid for proenkephalin A in cultured murine CD4-positive thymocytes. Endocrinology. 1991 Feb;128(2):717–724. doi: 10.1210/endo-128-2-717. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  91. Litt M., Buroker N. E., Kondoleon S., Douglass J., Liston D., Sheehy R., Magenis R. E. Chromosomal localization of the human proenkephalin and prodynorphin genes. Am J Hum Genet. 1988 Feb;42(2):327–334. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  92. Marcu K. B., Bossone S. A., Patel A. J. myc function and regulation. Annu Rev Biochem. 1992;61:809–860. doi: 10.1146/annurev.bi.61.070192.004113. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  93. Martens G. J., Herbert E. Polymorphism and absence of Leu-enkephalin sequences in proenkephalin genes in Xenopus laevis. Nature. 1984 Jul 19;310(5974):251–254. doi: 10.1038/310251a0. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  94. Matthews S. G., Heavens R. P., Sirinathsinghji D. J. Distribution and cellular localization of preproenkephalin mRNA in the ovine brain and pituitary. Brain Res Mol Brain Res. 1992 Feb;12(4):349–355. doi: 10.1016/0169-328x(92)90139-3. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  95. McMillian M. K., Hudson P. M., Lee D. Y., Thai L., Hung G. H., Hong J. S. Developmental changes in rat adrenal enkephalin precursor: peptide ratio. Brain Res Dev Brain Res. 1993 Jan 15;71(1):75–80. doi: 10.1016/0165-3806(93)90107-l. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  96. McMurray C. T., Wilson W. D., Douglass J. O. Hairpin formation within the enhancer region of the human enkephalin gene. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1991 Jan 15;88(2):666–670. doi: 10.1073/pnas.88.2.666. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  97. Melner M. H., Low K. G., Allen R. G., Nielsen C. P., Young S. L., Saneto R. P. The regulation of proenkephalin expression in a distinct population of glial cells. EMBO J. 1990 Mar;9(3):791–796. doi: 10.1002/j.1460-2075.1990.tb08175.x. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  98. Mermod N., Williams T. J., Tjian R. Enhancer binding factors AP-4 and AP-1 act in concert to activate SV40 late transcription in vitro. Nature. 1988 Apr 7;332(6164):557–561. doi: 10.1038/332557a0. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  99. Miner J. N., Yamamoto K. R. Regulatory crosstalk at composite response elements. Trends Biochem Sci. 1991 Nov;16(11):423–426. doi: 10.1016/0968-0004(91)90168-u. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  100. Mocchetti I., Guidotti A., Schwartz J. P., Costa E. Reserpine changes the dynamic state of enkephalin stores in rat striatum and adrenal medulla by different mechanisms. J Neurosci. 1985 Dec;5(12):3379–3385. doi: 10.1523/JNEUROSCI.05-12-03379.1985. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  101. Mocchetti I., Schwartz J. P., Costa E. Use of mRNA hybridization and radioimmunoassay to study mechanisms of drug-induced accumulation of enkephalins in rat brain structures. Mol Pharmacol. 1985 Jul;28(1):86–91. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  102. Monstein H. J., Geijer T. A highly sensitive Northern blot assay detects multiple proenkephalin A-like mRNAs in human caudate nucleus and pheochromocytoma. Biosci Rep. 1988 Jun;8(3):255–261. doi: 10.1007/BF01115042. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  103. Montminy M. R., Bilezikjian L. M. Binding of a nuclear protein to the cyclic-AMP response element of the somatostatin gene. Nature. 1987 Jul 9;328(6126):175–178. doi: 10.1038/328175a0. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  104. Morgan J. I., Curran T. Stimulus-transcription coupling in the nervous system: involvement of the inducible proto-oncogenes fos and jun. Annu Rev Neurosci. 1991;14:421–451. doi: 10.1146/annurev.ne.14.030191.002225. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  105. Morris B. J., Höllt V., Herz A. Dopaminergic regulation of striatal proenkephalin mRNA and prodynorphin mRNA: contrasting effects of D1 and D2 antagonists. Neuroscience. 1988 May;25(2):525–532. doi: 10.1016/0306-4522(88)90256-4. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  106. Mueller R. A., Thoenen H., Axelrod J. Increase in tyrosine hydroxylase activity after reserpine administration. J Pharmacol Exp Ther. 1969 Sep;169(1):74–79. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  107. Nakanishi S., Inoue A., Kita T., Nakamura M., Chang A. C., Cohen S. N., Numa S. Nucleotide sequence of cloned cDNA for bovine corticotropin-beta-lipotropin precursor. Nature. 1979 Mar 29;278(5703):423–427. doi: 10.1038/278423a0. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  108. Noda M., Furutani Y., Takahashi H., Toyosato M., Hirose T., Inayama S., Nakanishi S., Numa S. Cloning and sequence analysis of cDNA for bovine adrenal preproenkephalin. Nature. 1982 Jan 21;295(5846):202–206. doi: 10.1038/295202a0. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  109. Noda M., Teranishi Y., Takahashi H., Toyosato M., Notake M., Nakanishi S., Numa S. Isolation and structural organization of the human preproenkephalin gene. Nature. 1982 Jun 3;297(5865):431–434. doi: 10.1038/297431a0. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  110. Orkin S. H. Globin gene regulation and switching: circa 1990. Cell. 1990 Nov 16;63(4):665–672. doi: 10.1016/0092-8674(90)90133-y. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  111. Padrós M. R., Vindrola O., Zunszain P., Fainboin L., Finkielman S., Nahmod V. E. Mitogenic activation of the human lymphocytes induce the release of proenkephalin derived peptides. Life Sci. 1989;45(19):1805–1811. doi: 10.1016/0024-3205(89)90521-3. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  112. Petrack B., Emmett M. R., Rao T. S., Kim H. S., Wood P. L. Increases in rat striatal preproenkephalin mRNA levels following chronic treatment with the depot neuroleptic, haloperidol decanoate. Life Sci. 1990;46(10):687–691. doi: 10.1016/0024-3205(90)90073-z. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  113. Pittius C. W., Kley N., Loeffler J. P., Höllt V. Quantitation of proenkephalin A messenger RNA in bovine brain, pituitary and adrenal medulla: correlation between mRNA and peptide levels. EMBO J. 1985 May;4(5):1257–1260. doi: 10.1002/j.1460-2075.1985.tb03769.x. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  114. Polakiewicz R. D., Behar O. Z., Comb M. J., Rosen H. Regulation of proenkephalin expression in cultured skin mesenchymal cells. Mol Endocrinol. 1992 Mar;6(3):399–408. doi: 10.1210/mend.6.3.1584216. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  115. Polakiewicz R. D., Rosen H. Regulated expression of proenkephalin A during ontogenic development of mesenchymal derivative tissues. Mol Cell Biol. 1990 Feb;10(2):736–742. doi: 10.1128/mcb.10.2.736. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  116. Rao S. M., Howells R. D. Molecular cloning, sequence analysis and translation of proenkephalin mRNA from rat heart. Regul Pept. 1992 Aug 13;40(3):397–408. doi: 10.1016/0167-0115(92)90526-z. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  117. Rao S. M., Howells R. D. cis-acting elements in the 5'-untranslated region of rat testis proenkephalin mRNA regulate translation of the precursor protein. J Biol Chem. 1993 Oct 15;268(29):22164–22169. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  118. Rattner A., Korner M., Rosen H., Baeuerle P. A., Citri Y. Nuclear factor kappa B activates proenkephalin transcription in T lymphocytes. Mol Cell Biol. 1991 Feb;11(2):1017–1022. doi: 10.1128/mcb.11.2.1017. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  119. Roeder R. G. The complexities of eukaryotic transcription initiation: regulation of preinitiation complex assembly. Trends Biochem Sci. 1991 Nov;16(11):402–408. doi: 10.1016/0968-0004(91)90164-q. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  120. Rosen H., Bar-Shavit Z. Dual role of osteoblastic proenkephalin derived peptides in skeletal tissues. J Cell Biochem. 1994 Jul;55(3):334–339. doi: 10.1002/jcb.240550310. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  121. Rosen H., Behar O., Abramsky O., Ovadia H. Regulated expression of proenkephalin A in normal lymphocytes. J Immunol. 1989 Dec 1;143(11):3703–3707. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  122. Rosen H., Douglass J., Herbert E. Isolation and characterization of the rat proenkephalin gene. J Biol Chem. 1984 Nov 25;259(22):14309–14313. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  123. Rosen H., Itin A., Schiff R., Keshet E. Local regulation within the female reproductive system and upon embryonic implantation: identification of cells expressing proenkephalin A. Mol Endocrinol. 1990 Jan;4(1):146–154. doi: 10.1210/mend-4-1-146. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  124. Rosen H., Polakiewicz R. D., Benzakine S., Bar-Shavit Z. Proenkephalin A in bone-derived cells. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1991 May 1;88(9):3705–3709. doi: 10.1073/pnas.88.9.3705. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  125. Rosen H., Polakiewicz R. D., Simantov R. Expression of proenkephalin A mRNA and enkephalin-containing peptides in cultured fibroblasts. Biochem Biophys Res Commun. 1990 Sep 14;171(2):722–728. doi: 10.1016/0006-291x(90)91206-8. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  126. Rosen H., Polakiewicz R. Postnatal expression of opioid genes in rat brain. Brain Res Dev Brain Res. 1989 Mar 1;46(1):123–129. doi: 10.1016/0165-3806(89)90149-1. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  127. Rosenfeld M. G. POU-domain transcription factors: pou-er-ful developmental regulators. Genes Dev. 1991 Jun;5(6):897–907. doi: 10.1101/gad.5.6.897. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  128. Roth K. A., Lorenz R. G., Unanue R. A., Weaver C. T. Nonopiate active proenkephalin-derived peptides are secreted by T helper cells. FASEB J. 1989 Oct;3(12):2401–2407. doi: 10.1096/fasebj.3.12.2529160. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  129. Sar M., Stumpf W. E., Miller R. J., Chang K. J., Cuatrecasas P. Immunohistochemical localization of enkephalin in rat brain and spinal cord. J Comp Neurol. 1978 Nov 1;182(1):17–37. doi: 10.1002/cne.901820103. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  130. Schwartz J. P., Simantov R. Developmental expression of proenkephalin mRNA in rat striatum and in striatal cultures. Brain Res. 1988 May 16;468(2):311–314. doi: 10.1016/0165-3806(88)90144-7. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  131. Senba E., Simmons D. M., Swanson L. W. Localization of neuropeptide precursor-synthesizing neurons in the rat olfactory bulb: a hybridization histochemical study. Neuroscience. 1990;38(3):629–641. doi: 10.1016/0306-4522(90)90057-b. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  132. Shinoda H., Marini A. M., Cosi C., Schwartz J. P. Brain region and gene specificity of neuropeptide gene expression in cultured astrocytes. Science. 1989 Jul 28;245(4916):415–417. doi: 10.1126/science.2569236. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  133. Sibinga N. E., Goldstein A. Opioid peptides and opioid receptors in cells of the immune system. Annu Rev Immunol. 1988;6:219–249. doi: 10.1146/annurev.iy.06.040188.001251. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  134. Sietzen M., Schober M., Fischer-Colbrie R., Scherman D., Sperk G., Winkler H. Rat adrenal medulla: levels of chromogranins, enkephalins, dopamine beta-hydroxylase and of the amine transporter are changed by nervous activity and hypophysectomy. Neuroscience. 1987 Jul;22(1):131–139. doi: 10.1016/0306-4522(87)90203-x. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  135. Simantov R., Snyder S. H. Morphine-like peptides in mammalian brain: isolation, structure elucidation, and interactions with the opiate receptor. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1976 Jul;73(7):2515–2519. doi: 10.1073/pnas.73.7.2515. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  136. Slater E. P., Rabenau O., Karin M., Baxter J. D., Beato M. Glucocorticoid receptor binding and activation of a heterologous promoter by dexamethasone by the first intron of the human growth hormone gene. Mol Cell Biol. 1985 Nov;5(11):2984–2992. doi: 10.1128/mcb.5.11.2984. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  137. Sonnenberg J. L., Rauscher F. J., 3rd, Morgan J. I., Curran T. Regulation of proenkephalin by Fos and Jun. Science. 1989 Dec 22;246(4937):1622–1625. doi: 10.1126/science.2512642. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  138. Springhorn J. P., Claycomb W. C. Preproenkephalin mRNA expression in developing rat heart and in cultured ventricular cardiac muscle cells. Biochem J. 1989 Feb 15;258(1):73–78. doi: 10.1042/bj2580073. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  139. Springhorn J. P., Claycomb W. C. Translation of heart preproenkephalin mRNA and secretion of enkephalin peptides from cultured cardiac myocytes. Am J Physiol. 1992 Nov;263(5 Pt 2):H1560–H1566. doi: 10.1152/ajpheart.1992.263.5.H1560. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  140. Spruce B. A., Curtis R., Wilkin G. P., Glover D. M. A neuropeptide precursor in cerebellum: proenkephalin exists in subpopulations of both neurons and astrocytes. EMBO J. 1990 Jun;9(6):1787–1795. doi: 10.1002/j.1460-2075.1990.tb08303.x. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  141. Stachowiak M. K., Hong J. S., Viveros O. H. Coordinate and differential regulation of phenylethanolamine N-methyltransferase, tyrosine hydroxylase and proenkephalin mRNAs by neural and hormonal mechanisms in cultured bovine adrenal medullary cells. Brain Res. 1990 Mar 5;510(2):277–288. doi: 10.1016/0006-8993(90)91378-t. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  142. Stachowiak M. K., Lee P. H., Rigual R. J., Viveros O. H., Hong J. S. Roles of the pituitary-adrenocortical axis in control of the native and cryptic enkephalin levels and proenkephalin mRNA in the sympathoadrenal system of the rat. Brain Res. 1988 Jun;427(3):263–273. doi: 10.1016/0169-328x(88)90049-6. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  143. Takemura M., Donovan D. M., Uhl G. R. Primary afferent stimulation acts through a 193 base pair promoter region to upregulate preproenkephalin expression in dorsal horn of transgenic mice. Brain Res Mol Brain Res. 1992 Apr;13(3):207–212. doi: 10.1016/0169-328x(92)90028-a. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  144. Tank A. W., Lewis E. J., Chikaraishi D. M., Weiner N. Elevation of RNA coding for tyrosine hydroxylase in rat adrenal gland by reserpine treatment and exposure to cold. J Neurochem. 1985 Oct;45(4):1030–1033. doi: 10.1111/j.1471-4159.1985.tb05519.x. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  145. Thoenen H., Mueller R. A., Axelrod J. Trans-synaptic induction of adrenal tyrosine hydroxylase. J Pharmacol Exp Ther. 1969 Oct;169(2):249–254. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  146. Toohey M. G., Morley K. L., Peterson D. O. Multiple hormone-inducible enhancers as mediators of differential transcription. Mol Cell Biol. 1986 Dec;6(12):4526–4538. doi: 10.1128/mcb.6.12.4526. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  147. Uhl G. R., Navia B., Douglas J. Differential expression of preproenkephalin and preprodynorphin mRNAs in striatal neurons: high levels of preproenkephalin expression depend on cerebral cortical afferents. J Neurosci. 1988 Dec;8(12):4755–4764. doi: 10.1523/JNEUROSCI.08-12-04755.1988. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  148. Ungar A., Phillips J. H. Regulation of the adrenal medulla. Physiol Rev. 1983 Jul;63(3):787–843. doi: 10.1152/physrev.1983.63.3.787. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  149. Van Nguyen T., Kobierski L., Comb M., Hyman S. E. The effect of depolarization on expression of the human proenkephalin gene is synergistic with cAMP and dependent upon a cAMP-inducible enhancer. J Neurosci. 1990 Aug;10(8):2825–2833. doi: 10.1523/JNEUROSCI.10-08-02825.1990. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  150. Vilijn M. H., Vaysse P. J., Zukin R. S., Kessler J. A. Expression of preproenkephalin mRNA by cultured astrocytes and neurons. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1988 Sep;85(17):6551–6555. doi: 10.1073/pnas.85.17.6551. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  151. Villiger P. M., Lotz M. Expression of prepro-enkephalin in human articular chondrocytes is linked to cell proliferation. EMBO J. 1992 Jan;11(1):135–143. doi: 10.1002/j.1460-2075.1992.tb05036.x. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  152. Viveros O. H., Wilson S. P. The adrenal chromaffin cell as a model to study the co-secretion of enkephalins and catecholamines. J Auton Nerv Syst. 1983 Jan;7(1):41–58. doi: 10.1016/0165-1838(83)90068-1. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  153. Wan D. C., Marley P. D., Livett B. G. Coordinate and differential regulation of proenkephalin A and PNMT mRNA expression in cultured bovine adrenal chromaffin cells: responses to cAMP elevation and phorbol esters. Brain Res Mol Brain Res. 1991 Jan;9(1-2):135–142. doi: 10.1016/0169-328x(91)90138-n. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  154. Waschek J. A., Pruss R. M., Siegel R. E., Eiden L. E., Bader M. F., Aunis D. Regulation of enkephalin, VIP, and chromogranin biosynthesis in actively secreting chromaffin cells. Multiple strategies for multiple peptides. Ann N Y Acad Sci. 1987;493:308–323. doi: 10.1111/j.1749-6632.1987.tb27215.x. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  155. Weintraub H., Davis R., Tapscott S., Thayer M., Krause M., Benezra R., Blackwell T. K., Turner D., Rupp R., Hollenberg S. The myoD gene family: nodal point during specification of the muscle cell lineage. Science. 1991 Feb 15;251(4995):761–766. doi: 10.1126/science.1846704. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  156. Weisinger G., DeCristofaro J. D., LaGamma E. F. Tissue- and treatment-specific usage of multiple preproenkephalin transcriptional start sites. J Biol Chem. 1992 Mar 5;267(7):4508–4512. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  157. Wilson S. P. Reserpine increases chromaffin cell enkephalin stores without a concomitant decrease in other proenkephalin-derived peptides. J Neurochem. 1987 Nov;49(5):1550–1556. doi: 10.1111/j.1471-4159.1987.tb01026.x. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  158. Wong M., Rius R. A., Loh Y. P. Characterization of Xenopus laevis proenkephalin gene. Brain Res Mol Brain Res. 1991 Oct;11(3-4):197–205. doi: 10.1016/0169-328x(91)90028-v. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  159. Yamamoto K. R. Steroid receptor regulated transcription of specific genes and gene networks. Annu Rev Genet. 1985;19:209–252. doi: 10.1146/annurev.ge.19.120185.001233. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  160. Yang H. Y., Hong J. S., Costa E. Regional distribution of LEU and MET enkephalin in rat brain. Neuropharmacology. 1977 Apr;16(4):303–307. doi: 10.1016/0028-3908(77)90112-5. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  161. Yoburn B. C., Franklin S. O., Calvano S. E., Inturrisi C. E. Regulation of rat adrenal medullary enkephalins by glucocorticoids. Life Sci. 1987 Jun 29;40(26):2495–2503. doi: 10.1016/0024-3205(87)90070-1. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  162. Yoshikawa K., Maruyama K., Aizawa T., Yamamoto A. A new species of enkephalin precursor mRNA with a distinct 5'-untranslated region in haploid germ cells. FEBS Lett. 1989 Mar 27;246(1-2):193–196. doi: 10.1016/0014-5793(89)80281-9. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  163. Yoshikawa K., Sabol S. L. Expression of the enkephalin precursor gene in C6 rat glioma cells: regulation by beta-adrenergic agonists and glucocorticoids. Brain Res. 1986 Jul;387(1):75–83. doi: 10.1016/0169-328x(86)90022-7. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  164. Yoshikawa K., Sabol S. L. Glucocorticoids and cyclic AMP synergistically regulate the abundance of preproenkephalin messenger RNA in neuroblastoma-glioma hybrid cells. Biochem Biophys Res Commun. 1986 Aug 29;139(1):1–10. doi: 10.1016/s0006-291x(86)80071-7. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  165. Zagon I. S., Isayama T., McLaughlin P. J. Preproenkephalin mRNA expression in the developing and adult rat brain. Brain Res Mol Brain Res. 1994 Jan;21(1-2):85–98. doi: 10.1016/0169-328x(94)90381-6. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  166. Zagon I. S., McLaughlin P. J. Identification of opioid peptides regulating proliferation of neurons and glia in the developing nervous system. Brain Res. 1991 Mar 1;542(2):318–323. doi: 10.1016/0006-8993(91)91585-o. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  167. Zhu Y. S., Branch A. D., Robertson H. D., Huang T. H., Franklin S. O., Inturrisi C. E. Time course of enkephalin mRNA and peptides in cultured rat adrenal medulla. Brain Res Mol Brain Res. 1992 Jan;12(1-3):173–180. doi: 10.1016/0169-328x(92)90081-l. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  168. Zhu Y. S., Branch A. D., Robertson H. D., Inturrisi C. E. Cloning and characterization of hamster proenkephalin gene. DNA Cell Biol. 1994 Jan;13(1):25–35. doi: 10.1089/dna.1994.13.25. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  169. Zinn S. A., Ebert K. M., Mehta N. D., Joshi J., Kilpatrick D. L. Selective transcription of rat proenkephalin fusion genes from the spermatogenic cell-specific promoter in testis of transgenic mice. J Biol Chem. 1991 Dec 15;266(35):23850–23855. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  170. Zurawski G., Benedik M., Kamb B. J., Abrams J. S., Zurawski S. M., Lee F. D. Activation of mouse T-helper cells induces abundant preproenkephalin mRNA synthesis. Science. 1986 May 9;232(4751):772–775. doi: 10.1126/science.2938259. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

Articles from Biochemical Journal are provided here courtesy of The Biochemical Society

RESOURCES