Table 1.

Summary of thermal effect-based sonogenetics and their recent applications.

Mediators	US equipment	Operational methods	US parameters	Application	Tempera-ture	Ref.
TRPV1	The US equipment was customized by Xinxiang Chiyu Ultrasonic Equipment Co. LTD and consists of a signal generator and a power amplifier.	US-stimulated M1 region of the mouse brain under anesthesia using a collimator.	1.8 MHz, Stimulation 2 s and stop for 2 s, Duration: 400 s, Power: 6W.	Induction of calcium influx, Neuromodulation in the M1 region of mouse brain.	42 °C	60
	A specialized wearable FUS device was designed, featuring an FUS transducer and a base plate	Attachment of FUS transducer base plate to the mouse skull.	1.5 MHz, 40% DC, PRF 10Hz, Duration: 15 s 0.7 and 1.1 MPa.	Neuromodulation of motor cortex in freely moving mice.	0.7 MPa: 38.57 ± 0.31 °C 1.1 MPa: 39.69 ± 0.59 °C	61
HSP	The US field is generated using an unfocused air-backed transrectal transducer, with power delivery managed by a multichannel RF driving system.	A transrectal US transducer surrounded by a water-filled latex membrane is placed in the animal rectum.	1.5 MHz, Power levels reaching as high as 70 W.	Control of exogenous luciferase expression in canine prostate.	42 °C	35
	The FUS system consists of a 1.5 MHz 8-element annular array transducer, a 16-channel broadband radiofrequency generator, an X-Y positioning stage, and a degassing and water circulation system.	The FUS transducer is placed directly above the targeted region on the mouse's hindlimb. Thin layers of SCAN ultrasound gel are applied at both the skin-transducer and skin-bed interfaces.	Three pulses of 5 min heating by MRI-guided FUS.	Regulation of CAR-T cell activity in tumors using a Cre-lox gene switch.	43 °C	33
	The therapeutic array, operating at 1.5 MHz and comprising 128 elements, was sourced from Imasonic. An imaging array is employed for image guidance and treatment planning.	The needle thermocouple is inserted subcutaneously between the tumor and the body wall. After placement, the animal is positioned laterally with the tumor oriented towards the therapeutic array.	1.5 MHz 128-element, 0-80% DC, Duration: 15 min, Maximum intensity Ispta of 20 W/cm2.	Multiplexed genome regulation in Jurkat T cells and primary T cells.	43 °C	10
TSR-TlpA36	The FUS procedure utilizes a 16-channel ultrasound generator, a motorized MRI-compatible transducer positioning system, and an annular array transducer operating at 1.5 MHz.	FUS is used to activate subcutaneously injected bacterial agents at a specific anatomical site.	1.5 MHz, 41 °C for 45 min to 1 h	Activated engineered E. coli expressing GFP at a specific anatomical site.	41 °C	24
TSR-TcI42	A closed-loop thermal control system was developed to maintain temperature by adjusting the intensity of the FUS. A Velmex BiSlide motorized positioning system is utilized to submerge and position the 0.67 MHz FUS transducer. A signal generator produces the thermal ultrasound signal, which is subsequently amplified and transmitted to the ultrasound transducer.	Mice were anesthetized and secured in a vertical nose-up position to an acrylic arm connected to a manual 3D positioning system, facilitating three-dimensional translation of the mouse within the water bath. The target flank was then activated using the FUS system.	0.67 MHz, 50% DC, 0.6 MPa, A total of 1 h at 43 °C with 5 min pulse duration.	Activated engineered E. coli Nissle 1917 for the sustained release of aPD-L1 and aATLA-4.	42 °C	62
TSR-cI857	No specific description.	The ON/OFF US irradiation procedure was adjusted to keep the temperature constant, and the mice were irradiated with the ultrasound for 30 min.	0.96 MHz, 150 ms pulse period, 100 ms pulse width, 3s ON and 5s OFF, 3.52 MPa.	Activated engineered E. coli MG1655 expressing IFN-γ for tumor immunotherapy.	45 °C	63