Adaptation and validation of the Moroccan dialect version of the nomophobia questionnaire (NMP-Q): Among university students

Abstract

The fear of being without a mobile phone, known as nomophobia, is a new psychological issue that has arisen with the widespread use of information and communication technologies. To understand this phenomenon, more research is needed. The present study aimed to assess the factor structure of the Moroccan dialect version of the Nomophobia Questionnaire (NMP-Q) among a sample of Moroccan university students. The study included 400 students selected by convenience sampling from two universities (Fez and Rabat). First, an Exploratory Factor Analysis (EFA) was conducted using the principal component method with Varimax rotation. Then, a Confirmatory Factor Analysis (CFA), and Exploratory Structural Equation Modeling (ESEM) were carried out. The results showed that a 20-item, four-factor model was the best fit for the data collected from the sample, indicating cross-cultural validity and the robustness of the NMP-Q's structure. This suggests that the Moroccan version of the NMP-Q is useful for assessing nomophobia behavior among Moroccan university students.

1. Introduction

Technology's rapid advancement has profoundly impacted our daily activities and behaviors ([[1], [2], [3], [4]]. Mobile phones, a pivotal form of information and communication technology (ICT), have seen significant evolution [5,6]: smartphones, in particular, have become indispensable in our daily lives. Concurrently, studies have identified adverse effects associated with mobile phone usage [7], including the development of excessive dependence on these devices, which leads to signs of abnormal behavior. One notable manifestation of this dependence is nomophobia [8,9], a portmanteau of “no-mobile-phone-phobia”, which is a relatively new psychological phenomenon that has emerged in the era of widespread use of mobile phones and other ICTs.

Nomophobia can be described as the fear of being technologically unreachable, specifically being disconnected from the internet or mobile devices [10,11]. It manifests through anxiety, stress, and panic when individuals are separated from their mobile phones or cannot access information or communicate using their devices [[10], [11], [12], [13]]. Individuals experiencing nomophobia often feel as if they have lost a part of themselves when away from their mobile devices [11].

A comprehensive review by Rodríguez-García et al. (2020) [14] highlights that nomophobia adversely affects various facets of life, including personality, self-esteem, anxiety and stress levels, academic performance, and physical and mental health. The condition disproportionately affects women and younger individuals [15,16]. Furthermore, a correlation exists between nomophobia symptoms and insomnia, as well as higher levels of smartphone addiction [17].

Academic research on nomophobia, though still emerging, is increasing, particularly regarding its prevalence among university students. A study among dental students in India found that 39.5 % believed excessive mobile phone use could degrade their academic performance, with 24.7 % checking their phones during class or clinical activities. It classified 24.12 % of these students as having nomophobia, with 40.97 % at risk of developing it. Notable variations were observed in mobile phone usage and impact across different academic levels [18]. Similarly, a systematic review by Tuco et al. (2023) found that the prevalence rates of mild, moderate, and severe nomophobia were 24 %, 56 %, and 17 %, respectively, with the highest severe nomophobia prevalence in Indonesia (71 %) and the lowest in Germany (3 %). These rates were consistent across genders and academic majors [19]. According to Humood et al., about 21 % of the general adult population suffers from severe nomophobia, with university students being particularly vulnerable [20,21].

Significantly, there is no uniform agreement on the classification of nomophobia. While some researchers suggest it is a situational phobia linked to agoraphobia, which also involves a fear of sudden illness requiring immediate help [22], others categorize smartphone addiction as a behavioral disorder marked by psychological and physical dependencies [23]. The interpretation of nomophobia might be more aptly described as a form of anxiety, addiction, or behavioral disorder rather than a specific phobia [24]. Moreover, the methodologies for measuring nomophobia have often been framed within addiction criteria, indicating an analogy to substance abuse disorders.

To address this, Yildirim and Correia (2015) developed the Nomophobia Questionnaire (NMP-Q), utilizing Exploratory Factor Analysis (EFA) to delineate four dimensions encapsulated by this tool. The NMP-Q was specifically crafted to facilitate the evaluation of nomophobia, with the authors affirming its substantial internal consistency and moderate reliability for assessing the condition [11].

The Nomophobia Questionnaire (NMP-Q) developed by Yildirim and Correia is a pivotal instrument for assessing nomophobia, fundamentally based on the idea of technological addiction and its effects on psychological health. The NMP-Q identifies an “irrational” fear related to being unable to access the connectivity provided by mobile phones, retrieve information, or enjoy the conveniences they offer [25].

The questionnaire includes 20 items, covering four dimensions. Subsequent validation studies across various nations such as Italy, Indonesia, Kuwait, China, Germany, and Mexico, have confirmed that the NMP-Q maintains satisfactory psychometric properties and internal consistency. A systematic review by Jahrami et al. (2023) demonstrated that the NMP-Q has excellent internal consistency overall and for the subscales, with ten out of thirteen validation studies consistently supporting its four-factor structure [26].

Despite these findings, there were some discrepancies in replicating the initial factor structure proposed by Yildirim and Correia (2015), with some adaptations suggesting a three-factor structure instead [27,28]. Jahrami et al. (2023) highlighted that while the majority of studies replicate the original four-factor structure, variations exist in different populations, indicating potential cultural and demographic influences on the perceived dimensions of nomophobia. These variations underscore the need for further research to explore the scale's reliability and validity across diverse groups, particularly in underrepresented populations like Moroccan university students.

The current research initiative aims to bridge this gap by examining the psychometric properties of the NMP-Q in the Moroccan dialect, using both confirmatory and exploratory analyses. Additionally, the study will explore how demographic factors such as age and gender correlate with nomophobia among Moroccan university students, providing insights into the cultural specificity of nomophobia in Arabic-speaking contexts. This approach not only enhances our understanding of nomophobia in different cultural settings but also refines the tool's effectiveness for broader, global applications.

2. Material and methods

2.1. Participants

Our study includes a sample of 400 university students from two major Moroccan universities located in Fez and Rabat. We employed convenience sampling to select participants, which ensured both accessibility and efficiency in gathering data from these well-known educational institutions. This method facilitated the inclusion of a diverse pool of students from various academic fields. All participation was voluntary, with only those students who were interested being recruited for the study. The participants were equally recruited from both Rabat and Fez, maintaining a nearly balanced gender distribution (56.0 % male and 44.0 % female). The vast majority of the participants were students not currently employed (82.3 %), with the remainder (17.8 %) holding employment. The average age of the participants was 26.68 years, with a standard deviation of 9.18 years, and age ranges spanning from 19 to 66 years.

2.2. Instrument

The NMP-Q, developed by Yildirim and Correia, is a widely used tool designed to assess nomophobia. The NMP-Q questionnaire consists of 20 items, each rated on a 7-point Likert scale, with responses ranging from 1 (indicating strong disagreement) to 7 (indicating strong agreement). The 20 items are distributed in four dimensions: These dimensions are 1) the inability to communicate; 2) loss of connectedness; 3) the inability to obtain information; and 4) relinquishing convenience. The total score for the questionnaire ranges from 20 to 140, with higher scores indicating a higher level of nomophobia.

2.3. Procedure

The Nomophobia Questionnaire (NMP-Q) underwent a three-stage translation process to ensure its cultural and linguistic appropriateness for the Moroccan student population. The first stage involved two Moroccan dialect-speaking bilingual translators independently translating the NMP-Q from English to the Moroccan dialect. The second stage consisted of creating a single merged interim Moroccan version through a comparison of the two forward translations, with the assistance of a recording observer to ensure accuracy and consistency.

In the final stage, two other translators, who were blinded to the original English version, independently translated the interim Moroccan version back into English. This backward translation process aimed to ensure that the meaning and content of the translated version were preserved [29,30]. To evaluate the equivalence of the translated version, a panel of experts reviewed both the forward and backward translations for conceptual, semantic, and cultural equivalence. Any discrepancies were discussed and resolved through consensus.

The final questionnaire used in the current study consists of two parts. The first part included demographic questions such as age and gender. The second part consists of 20 items that made up the scale. Before administering the questionnaire, a pilot test was conducted with a small group of 30 participants to evaluate the comprehensibility and clarity of the questionnaire.

Participants were recruited through a combination of methods, including direct contact and email invitations. Data collection was conducted using an online survey. Participants were provided with a link to the survey, which they could access at their convenience. participants were informed that their participation was voluntary and anonymous. No incentives or compensation were offered for participation.

2.4. Data analysis

Initially, the collected data was analyzed using descriptive statistics to provide a characterization of the data. Mean and standard deviation were computed for continuous data, while percentages were used for categorical data. Additionally, skewness and kurtosis values were calculated for each item score to assess their symmetry, with values ranging from −2 to +2 considered acceptable.

Confirmatory Factor Analysis (CFA) was initially conducted using the maximum likelihood estimation method to test the proposed four-factor structure of the Nomophobia Questionnaire (NMP-Q) among Moroccan students. Due to the inadequate fit indices obtained from the CFA, an Exploratory Structural Equation Modeling (ESEM) analysis was conducted using the Esem R package. The initial step involved performing an Exploratory Factor Analysis (EFA) to identify the underlying factor structure of the questionnaire. The Maximum Likelihood method with geominT rotation was employed to extract factors. Four factors were identified based on the analysis. The pattern matrix of standardized loadings was inspected to see how each question loaded onto the identified factors and the communalities and unique variances were computed to get insights on how much of each variable's variance is explained by the factors. Then, the ESEM model was further fitted using the Diagonally Weighted Least Squares (DWLS) estimator.

Several model fit indices were examined to evaluate the adequacy of the proposed four-factor model. These indices included the BIC, Chi-squared test, Comparative Fit Index (CFI), and Root Mean Square Error of Approximation (RMSEA) with a 90 % confidence interval. To determine the suitability of the model fit, established cutoff values were utilized. Specifically, values approaching 1 for CFI, along with RMSEA values below 0.08, were indicative of an acceptable fit [31].

To assess the internal consistency and reliability of the scale, Cronbach's alpha coefficient and corrected item-total correlation were used. The NMP-Q scores were computed for both overall and subscale scores. Accordingly, participants were classified into different levels of nomophobia based on the cutoff values proposed by Yildirim and Correia [11]. Those with a score of 20 were categorized as not having nomophobia, while those with scores ranging from 21 to 59 were considered to have mild nomophobia. Participants with scores in the range of 60–99 were classified as having moderate nomophobia. If the NMP-Q score was between 100 and 140, the individual's nomophobia level was considered severe.

All statistical analyses were performed using SPSS version 23.0 and R (version 4.4.0 for Windows) using the package esem, and significance was set at p < 0.05.

2.5. Ethical considerations

Before collecting data, the participants were informed about the nature and objective of the research and were asked to provide written, informed consent. The confidentiality of their information was guaranteed, and no incentives were offered to encourage participation. The research was conducted in adherence to the guidelines of the Helsinki Declaration. The Institutional Ethics Review Board approved the study protocol.

3. Results

A total of 400 students belonging to two Moroccan universities participated in the study. The demographic characteristics of the sample are presented in Table 1.

Table 1.

Characteristics of the surveyed students.

	N	Percentage%
Gender
Male	224	56.0
Female	176	44.0
Employment status
Unemployed students	329	82.3
Employed students	71	17.8
University location
Rabat	200	50.0
Fes	200	50.0
Age
Mean	26.68
SD	918
Min	19
Max	66

Table 2 shows the means and standard deviations of the items, as well as their kurtosis and skewness values, all of which fall within acceptable limits. More in detail, in terms of central tendency, the means ranged from 2.08 (Q13) to 4.42 (Q7), with medians being generally close to the means, suggesting a relatively symmetrical distribution for most questions. Trimmed means (excluding extreme values) were also close to the regular means, reinforcing the symmetry. In terms of dispersion, standard deviations ranged from 1.53 (Q13) to 2.38 (Q2 and Q7). Skewness values ranged from −0.22 (Q7) to 1.69 (Q13), with most questions showing slight positive skewness (values > 0). Q13 and Q16 showed notable positive skewness, indicating many responses were clustered at the lower end (near 1). Kurtosis values ranged from −1.55 (Q2) to 2.36 (Q13). Most questions had negative kurtosis, suggesting flatter distributions than the normal distribution (platykurtic). Q13 stands out with a high positive kurtosis, indicating a peaked distribution with heavier tails (leptokurtic). Standard Error values were fairly consistent across questions, ranging from 0.08 to 0.12. This consistency suggests similar reliability in the mean estimates for each question.

Table 2.

Descriptive Statistics for Items of the Nomophobia Questionnaire with skewness and kurtosis figures.

Item	Mean		Skewness		Kurtosis
	Value	Standard deviation	Value	Standard error.	Value	Standard error.
Q1	3.64	2.122	0.373	0.122	−1.186	0.243
Q2	4.20	2.369	−0.077	0.122	−1.549	0.243
Q3	3.40	2.106	0.517	0.122	−1.033	0.243
Q4	3.36	2.151	0.543	0.122	−1.069	0.243
Q5	3.87	2.218	0.232	0.122	−1.402	0.243
Q6	3.80	2.124	0.261	0.122	−1.261	0.243
Q7	4.42	2.380	−0.223	0.122	−1.541	0.243
Q8	3.79	2.122	0.280	0.122	−1.285	0.243
Q9	3.51	2.037	0.457	0.122	−1.018	0.243
Q10	3.04	1.901	0.797	0.122	−0.399	0.243
Q11	3.55	2.041	0.405	0.122	−1.061	0.243
Q12	3.25	2.068	0.638	0.122	−0.862	0.243
Q13	2.09	1.533	1.704	0.122	2.434	0.243
Q14	2.69	1.927	0.946	0.122	−0.271	0.243
Q15	2.97	2.014	0.747	0.122	−0.665	0.243
Q16	2.20	1.585	1.429	0.122	1.382	0.243
Q17	2.77	1.948	0.894	0.122	−0.373	0.243
Q18	3.64	2.147	0.328	0.122	−1.213	0.243
Q19	3.31	2.012	0.568	0.122	−0.920	0.243
Q20	3.38	2.015	0.401	0.122	−1.050	0.243

In terms of notable observations, Q7 (Mean = 4.42, Median = 5.0) had the highest mean and median, suggesting it received more favorable responses. The slight negative skewness indicated more responses were concentrated at the higher end. Q13 (Mean = 2.08, Skew = 1.69, Kurtosis = 2.36) had the lowest mean and shows significant positive skew and kurtosis, indicating most responses were at the lower end, with a few higher values pulling the mean up. Q2 and Q7 (SD = 2.37 and 2.38 respectively) showed the highest variability in responses, indicating a wide range of opinions.

Overall, many questions showed near-symmetrical distributions (mean close to the median, low skewness). Negative kurtosis for most questions suggests the responses were rather evenly spread across the scale. The consistent range across all questions indicates responses utilized the full scale uniformly.

At the exploratory factor analysis with geominT rotation, the model appeared to fit well with a low RMSR (0.03) and a degree-of-freedom corrected RMSR of 0.04. The Chi-Square statistics indicated a significant fit, though this can be common with large sample sizes. The TLI of 0.913 and RMSEA of 0.047 (within the confidence interval of 0.038–0.057) suggested an acceptable fit. BIC, indicating model comparison metrics, yielded a value of −475.9. In terms of factor score adequacy, correlations of factor scores with factors and multiple R-squared values showed good levels of explained variance for each factor. Table 3.

Table 3.

Exploratory factor analysis (EFA) of the four factors’ Nomophobia Questionnaire using geominT rotation.

	ML1	ML2	ML3	ML4	h2	u2	com
Q1	0.64	−0.09	−0.01	0.08	0.42	0.58	1.1
Q2	0.60	0.04	−0.26	0.01	0.43	0.57	1.4
Q3	0.51	0.04	0.06	−0.12	0.28	0.72	1.2
Q4	0.53	−0.05	0.04	0.08	0.30	0.70	1.1
Q5	0.57	0.19	−0.10	−0.01	0.37	0.63	1.3
Q6	0.60	0.01	−0.15	0.10	0.40	0.60	1.2
Q7	0.50	0.01	0.12	−0.08	0.27	0.73	1.2
Q8	0.30	0.53	−0.14	0.02	0.39	0.61	1.7
Q9	0.29	0.67	0.10	0.12	0.55	0.45	1.5
Q10	0.32	0.46	0.17	−0.01	0.34	0.66	2.1
Q11	0.33	0.71	−0.01	−0.02	0.61	0.39	1.4
Q12	0.37	0.49	0.11	−0.21	0.43	0.57	2.4
Q13	0.19	0.09 0.31	−0.03	0.14	0.86	1.9
Q14	0.36	0.24	0.35	−0.27	0.39	0.61	3.6
Q15	0.58	0.00	0.29	−0.04	0.42	0.58	1.5
Q16	0.31	0.03	0.53	0.03	0.38	0.62	1.6
Q17	0.34	0.15	0.37	−0.07	0.28	0.72	2.4
Q18	0.40	0.00	−0.07	0.51	0.42	0.58	1.9
Q19	0.59	−0.03	0.00	0.42	0.52	0.48	1.8
Q20	0.41	0.07	0.32	0.33	0.39	0.61	2.9

When applying the TargetQ rotation, aimed at achieving a more theoretically informed factor structure and improving interpretability based on predefined hypotheses, factor loadings showed a slight adjustment from the initial results. Fit indices remained similar to the initial model. Factor correlations indicated moderate relationships among factors, with slight differences in the correlations of factor scores with factors compared to the initial model, but still indicating good adequacy. Table 4.

Table 4.

Exploratory factor analysis (EFA) of the four factors’ Nomophobia Questionnaire using targetQ rotation.

	ML3	ML4	ML1	ML2	h2	u2	com
Q1	0.04	0.25	0.47	−0.02	0.42	0.58	1.6
Q2	0.01	0.02	0.58	0.20	0.43	0.57	1.2
Q3	0.26	0.04	0.39	−0.03	0.28	0.72	1.8
Q4	0.06	0.25	0.35	−0.02	0.30	0.70	1.9
Q5	0.18	0.07	0.41	0.22	0.37	0.63	2.1
Q6	−0.01	0.17	0.48	0.15	0.40	0.60	1.4
Q7	0.25	0.11	0.34	−0.07	0.27	0.73	2.2
Q8	0.26	−0.01	0.07	0.51	0.39	0.61	1.5
Q9	0.39	0.21	−0.18	0.51	0.55	0.45	2.6
Q10	0.4	0.14	−0.05	0.27	0.34	0.66	2.0
Q11	0.47	0.01	−0.03	0.56	0.61	0.39	1.9
Q12	0.56	−0.09	0.12	0.26	0.43	0.57	1.6
Q13	0.29	0.19	−0.08	−0.11	0.14	0.86	2.3
Q14	0.61	−0.01	0.11	−0.10	0.39	0.61	1.1
Q15	0.32	0.28	0.27	−0.16	0.42	0.58	3.5
Q16	0.36	0.42	−0.12	−0.26	0.38	0.62	2.9
Q17	0.42	0.22	0.01	−0.10	0.28	0.72	1.7
Q18	−0.31	0.60	0.05	0.23	0.42	0.58	1.9
Q19	−0.19	0.60	0.21	0.14	0.52	0.48	1.6
Q20	0.07	0.64	−0.11	0.00	0.39	0.61	1.1

The ESEM model produced robust fit statistics: the RMSEA was slightly decreased at 0.046 (90 % confidence interval: 0.036 to 0.055). The SRMR remained at 0.038, while the TLI and CFI values were 0.952 and 0.969, respectively. Detailed factor loadings showed high associations for specific questions, such as Q1 (0.637), Q2 (0.702), Q3 (0.549), and Q6 (0.646) on the first factor, indicating they are strong measures of this latent construct. The factor correlations provided further insights, with correlations of 0.066 between ML1 and ML2, 0.145 between ML1 and ML3, and 0.120 between ML1 and ML4, suggesting weak relationships between the factors. Fig. 1.

Fig. 1.

Results from the ESEM analysis.

In conclusion, the ESEM results demonstrated a robust model with four distinct and weakly related latent factors underlying the responses. The high factor loadings and excellent fit indices confirmed that the model is well-specified and valid, effectively capturing the underlying dimensions of the data.

Further, findings shows that the questionnaire used in the study has good internal consistency, as indicated by the general Cronbach alfa reliability coefficient of 0.856. To evaluate the reliability of each item, Cronbach's alpha accounting for values where items were deleted, were utilized. The concept of Cronbach's alpha if an item deleted refers to the Cronbach's alpha value of the scale if a specific item was excluded from the analysis. The results showed that removing any single item from the NMP-Q scale would have a minimal impact on the overall reliability, with alpha coefficients ranging from 0.846 to 0.856 for the remaining items. Table 5.

Table 5.

Effect of dropping each individual item on the Cronbach's alpha coefficient for the NMP-Q scale.

Item-Total Statistics
	Scale Mean if Item Deleted	Scale Variance if Item Deleted	Corrected Item-Total Correlation	Cronbach's Alpha if Item Deleted
Q1	63.24	402.252	0.507	0.847
Q2	62.69	400.015	0.467	0.848
Q3	63.48	407.307	0.449	0.849
Q4	63.52	407.189	0.439	0.849
Q5	63.01	398.170	0.529	0.846
Q6	63.08	403.578	0.490	0.847
Q7	62.46	401.902	0.444	0.849
Q8	63.09	411.028	0.400	0.851
Q9	63.37	406.871	0.473	0.848
Q10	63.85	412.074	0.443	0.849
Q11	63.33	406.003	0.483	0.848
Q12	63.63	407.287	0.459	0.849
Q13	64.80	432.320	0.239	0.856
Q14	64.19	413.952	0.411	0.851
Q15	63.91	403.393	0.525	0.846
Q16	64.68	424.632	0.349	0.853
Q17	64.11	414.766	0.395	0.851
Q18	63.24	415.043	0.346	0.853
Q19	63.58	405.225	0.502	0.847
Q20	63.50	409.614	0.444	0.849

The mean scores for each factor were calculated based on the responses of the participants to the scale items that load on each factor. The results indicate that the participant's mean scores were M = 26,70, SD = 9,98; M = 17,14 SD 7,46; M = 12,72 SD 5,82); and M = 10,33 SD 4,72 for factors I, II, III, and IV, respectively. The overall mean score was M = 66,89 SD 21,21123; Fig. 2 displays the distribution of the participants' overall scores.

Fig. 2.

Distribution of total score.

The prevalence of nomophobia in our sample indicated that only 3 participants (0.8 %) reported no symptoms of nomophobia. On the other hand, 142 individuals (35.5 %) reported mild levels of nomophobia, while 226 individuals (56.5 %) reported moderate levels. Additionally, 29 participants (7.3 %) reported experiencing severe levels of nomophobia. These figures suggest that nomophobia is a prevalent issue among the study participants. Table 6.

Table 6.

Prevalence of nomophobia among the medical students.

NMP-Q scores	Description	Frequency (N = 400)	Percentage%
20	Absence	3	0.8
>20 to <60	Mild	142	35.5
60 to <100	Moderate	226	56.5
≥100	Severe	29	7.3

The results of the multivariate regression analysis indicated that age and gender were not significant predictors of nomophobia, as indicated by their respective coefficients (-,005 and,018), standard errors (0.003 and 0.061), partial correlation coefficients (−0.069 and 0.015), t-values (−1.369 and 0.293), and p-values (0.026 and 0.770), as measured by the total score of the NMP-Q.

4. Discussion

The phenomenon of nomophobia is becoming more widespread in today's society and therefore requires attention and research. From this perspective, the main objective of this research is to evaluate the effectiveness of the NMP-Q questionnaire in measuring nomophobia among Moroccan university students by assessing its psychometric properties.

To evaluate the construct validity of the NMP-Q questionnaire, the four-factor model was subjected to ESEM. The analysis effectively identified four underlying factors within the dataset, with both GeominT and TargetQ rotations providing insightful factor structures. The fit indices supported the adequacy of the model, showing that the four-factor solution is reasonable. The TargetQ rotation offered a more hypothesis-driven approach, potentially enhancing interpretability based on theoretical expectations. Overall, the ESEM approach here provides a robust understanding of the latent constructs in the dataset, with fit indices and factor score adequacy metrics supporting the model's reliability.

The findings of this research suggest that the nomophobia questionnaire with 20 items and four dimensions proposed by Ref. [11] and translated into Arabic by Ref. [29] was confirmed. The internal consistency of the questionnaire was satisfactory as the general Cronbach alpha reliability coefficient of the scale was 0.856, exceeding the acceptable value of 0.7. Moreover, removing an item did not increase the questionnaire's Cronbach alpha value. In the exploratory factor analysis (EFA) conducted for the validation of the scale, it is noteworthy that no items were deleted during the analysis process. This indicates that all items initially included in the scale were retained in the final structure.

The prospective contribution lies in the validation and confirmation that the Moroccan Arabic version of the NMP-Q conserves the same factor structure as its original counterpart. Such validation not only reinforces the reliability and cross-cultural applicability of the questionnaire but also provides researchers, practitioners, and policymakers with a robust instrument to assess nomophobia within the Arab-speaking community. Consequently, this research could make a substantial contribution to the broader field of studies focusing on mobile phone-related behaviors.

Overall, the construct validity and reliability analysis revealed that the NMP-Q is a reliable tool for measuring nomophobia in the context of university students in Morocco. The validation of the NMP-Q in other countries also showed similar results, indicating its cross-cultural robustness [29,[32], [33], [34]]. Nevertheless, some studies reported variations in the questionnaire's structure and item count, which may be attributed to cultural and sample differences.

Another finding of the current study is the significant difference in the proportion of individuals who showed varying degrees of nomophobia. Only a small percentage (0.8 %) showed no signs of nomophobia, while the majority reported either mild (35.5 %) or moderate (56.5 %) levels of nomophobia. A small proportion (7.3 %) reported severe levels of nomophobia, which was significantly lower compared to previous studies [21,35]. These findings call for additional research to explore the reasons for this disparity.

Our analysis of the questionnaire scores based on gender and age did not reveal any significant impact on nomophobia. This result is in line with Jahrami et al.'s (2023) review of the literature, which also found no evidence of a significant relationship between gender, age, and nomophobia. However, previous studies have suggested that females and young individuals are more likely to experience nomophobia [15,19,32,33,36]. Nonetheless, it is difficult to draw a definitive conclusion due to the variations in research methodologies across different studies.

The validation of the NMP-Q questionnaire in the Moroccan context offers practical implications for healthcare professionals, educators, and policymakers. With the validated instrument, healthcare providers can accurately assess and diagnose nomophobia among Moroccan university students, enabling them to develop tailored interventions and treatment strategies to address this emerging issue within a distinctive cultural setting. Additionally, educators can utilize the questionnaire as a screening tool to identify students at risk of smartphone addiction, thus implementing targeted educational programs to promote healthy technology usage habits [37]. Moreover, policymakers can use the validated instrument to inform the development of guidelines and regulations aimed at mitigating the negative effects of excessive smartphone use on mental health and overall well-being [[38], [39], [40]].

More broadly, the study's findings can have broader societal implications beyond the academic and healthcare sectors. By shedding light on the prevalence and severity of nomophobia among Moroccan university students, this research underscores the importance of raising awareness about responsible smartphone usage among the general public. Public awareness campaigns can be initiated to educate individuals about the potential risks associated with excessive smartphone use and to promote digital literacy skills to empower users to maintain a healthy balance between technology use and offline activities. Ultimately, by addressing nomophobia at the societal level, this research has the potential to contribute to the well-being and productivity of Moroccan society as a whole, fostering a healthier relationship with technology in the digital age.

This study represents the first investigation into the validity of the nomophobia scale and the prevalence of nomophobia in Morocco, contributing to the limited information available on nomophobia in Arabic nations. However, the current research has some limitations that need to be considered. The study used a non-probability sampling technique, which may limit the generalizability of the findings. Moreover, the research was limited to just two universities. Hence, a multicenter study involving a larger and nationally diverse sample is necessary to investigate nomophobia not only among university students but also among other demographic groups. Another limitation of the study is the absence of an analysis concerning the correlation between the NMP-Q and various variables explored in previous research, including frequency of mobile phone usage, susceptibility to depression, insomnia, and personality traits. Lastly, the study focused solely on the factor structure of the NMP-Q and did not investigate other relevant psychometric properties such as concurrent validity, discriminant validity, convergent validity, predictive validity, known-group validity, and test-retest reliability. Future research should aim to investigate these properties to provide a more comprehensive understanding of the NMP-Q's psychometric properties.

5. Conclusion

Nomophobia, which is a recently emerged problem in the digital era, has been linked to various adverse psychological and social effects, and therefore, demands greater attention and research.

The Moroccan version of the nomophobia questionnaire, which has a 4-factor structure, is reliable, making it suitable for investigating nomophobia in Moroccan society, particularly among university students. The findings of this study may provide valuable information for developing interventions and policies aimed at addressing nomophobia and promoting digital well-being not only in Morocco but also in other regions; however, Further research is needed to assess the psychometric properties of this translated questionnaire across diverse groups in Morocco, investigate comorbidities, and identify the underlying predictors of nomophobia.

Ethics statement

This study was reviewed and approved by the Institutional Ethics Review Board of the Department of Applied Psychology of the Faculty of Arts and Human Sciences. with the approval number: July 2023.

Data availability

The data used to support the findings of this study has not been deposited into a publicly available repository, data are available from the corresponding author upon request.

Financial Support

This research has been supported by “Le Centre National de Recherche Scientifique et Technique, Maroc: Cov/2020/28)” and by the “Lifelong Learning Observatory (UNESCO).

CRediT authorship contribution statement

Hicham Khabbache: Writing – review & editing, Writing – original draft, Supervision, Funding acquisition, Conceptualization. Driss Ait Ali: Writing – review & editing, Writing – original draft, Formal analysis, Data curation, Conceptualization. Abdelhalim Cherqui: Writing – review & editing, Software, Formal analysis, Data curation. Abdelaziz Allioui: Writing – review & editing, Writing – original draft, Methodology. Zakaria Abidli: Writing – review & editing, Writing – original draft, Formal analysis, Data curation. Joumana Elturk: Writing – review & editing, Writing – original draft, Software, Methodology. Murat Yildirim: Writing – review & editing, Writing – original draft, Methodology, Conceptualization. Nicola Luigi Bragazzi: Writing – review & editing, Writing – original draft, Formal analysis, Conceptualization. Gabriella Nucera: Writing – review & editing, Writing – original draft, Data curation. Lukasz Szarpak: Writing – review & editing, Writing – original draft, Methodology. Amelia Rizzo: Writing – review & editing, Writing – original draft, Methodology. Francesco Chirico: Writing – review & editing, Writing – original draft, Methodology, Conceptualization.

Declaration of competing interest

The authors declare the following financial interests/personal relationships which may be considered as potential competing interests: Hicham Khabbache reports financial support was provided by Le Centre National de Recherche Scientifique et Technique, Maroc. Hicham Khabbache reports financial support was provided by Lifelong Learning Observatory (UNESCO). If there are other authors, they declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.

Appendix A. Supplementary data

The following is the Supplementary data to this article: