The review of the evolution, deficiencies, and future outlook of China's pelagic fisheries management from 1985 to 2024

Abstract

The management of China's pelagic fisheries has played a crucial role in the development of these fisheries. By examining the evolution of pelagic fisheries management in China from 1985 to 2024, this study aims to examine the changes in the development trends over time. The study of the pelagic fisheries management evolution involves data collection and content analysis. The pelagic fisheries management in China can be divided into three distinct phases in chronological order: the first period (1985–1997) with the focus on accelerating the development of pelagic fisheries, the second period (1998–2015) with the focus on progressively engaging in international fisheries governance, the third period (2016–2024) with the focus on the ecological advancement of the pelagic fisheries. Nevertheless, there are still some deficiencies in pelagic fisheries management, including inadequate management, unreasonable subsidies, outdated equipment and technology, limited stakeholders engaged in management, and conflicting maritime interests with other nations. To address these deficiencies, this paper emphasizes enhancing the management system, reforming fishery subsidies, prioritizing science and technology, promoting stakeholders' engagement in management, and strengthening international collaboration in fisheries.

1. Introduction

China is one of the world's most important pelagic fisheries nations in terms of fishing fleet and production. In 1985, the nation started its pelagic fishery sector, which has since expanded over nearly four decades to encompass operations in four primary oceanic areas (Pacific, Atlantic, Indian, and Antarctic), as well as to the exclusive economic zones (EEZs) of over 40 countries. As of 2022, China had 2551 pelagic fishing vessels, producing 2.33 million tons of fish, representing 17.92 % of the nation's total marine catch [1]. The pelagic fishing industry in China generated a total value of 244.23 million CNY in 2022, representing an increase of 18.67 million CNY compared to the previous year [1]. The pelagic fishing industry of China is one of the largest globally in terms of production, value, and scale.

However, the world's wild fishery resources have been declining since the mid-1950s due to overfishing, and approximately 90 % of the global fish stocks have been either overexploited or fully exploited at the onset of the 21st century [2]. The decrease in worldwide fisheries is due to several factors, including overfishing, pollution, inadequate management, and others. Despite ongoing efforts have been done to reduce the global fishing fleets, there still needs further action taken to address overcapacity and promote sustainability in the fishing industry [2]. Hence, the issue of overfishing in pelagic fisheries has attracted worldwide attention to promote sustainable fishing practices.

To promote the conservation of global fishery resources, several international treaties and documents have been established, including the United Nations Fish Stocks Agreement (UNFSA), the Code of Conduct for Responsible Fisheries, the Port State Measures Agreement (PSMA), the International Plan of Action to Prevent, Deter and Eliminate Illegal, Unreported and Unregulated Fishing (IPOA-IUUs). These international treaties and documents have already become important tools to prevent overfishing and IUU fishing to sustainably manage global fishery resources [3]. And there is a growing international consensus regarding the necessity of ensuring sustainable utilization of global fishery resources, as well as establishing an effective international fishery management system [4].

Given the increasing strictness of international fishery regulations, China has shown a positive response by ratifying the international fishery treaties, as well as becoming a member of 8 Regional Fisheries Management Organizations (RFMOs). Moreover, China has signed bilateral cooperation deals with multiple nations and regions like the USA and EU. In addition, the Chinese national government has committed to enhancing fishery oversight and combating IUU fishing. For example, China is currently working towards joining the PSMA to meet its requirements for port states against IUU fishing [5].

As a result of active engagement in international fishery management, China's pelagic fisheries management has undergone continuous improvement following international standards for the conservation and management of fishery resources [6], including revising regulations and policies, increasing supervision of fishing activities, and promoting equipment improvement. Despite the ongoing efforts, deficiencies persist in the management of pelagic fisheries in China, including inadequate management, unreasonable subsidies, constraints in equipment and technology, limited stakeholders in management, and conflicts with other nations. Therefore, there is still a need for improvement in the management of pelagic fisheries moving forward.

To conduct a deep analysis of China's pelagic fisheries management, this study focuses on the examination of international, regional, and national fisheries documents to analyze its evolution, deficiencies and future outlook. For the management of pelagic fisheries involves various aspects, such as the enactment of regulations and policies, the implementation of management measures, as well as the supervision of fish trading process, a single paper cannot comprehensively address all these aspects. Therefore, although the author acknowledges the significance of those other aspects, the implementation of management measures and the supervision of fish trading process are outside of the scope of the study. Concretely, in this study, we first analyze how China's pelagic fisheries have developed and how its pelagic fisheries management has evolved by reviewing relevant international, regional and national regulations and policies. Further, we discussed the deficiencies in China's pelagic fisheries management in the realm of management system, fishery subsidies, equipment and technology, management stakeholders, and international cooperation. As a final point, we suggest the future outlook for improving China's pelagic fisheries management by enhancing the management system, improving fishery subsidies, prioritizing science and technology, promoting stakeholders' engagement, and enhancing international cooperation.

2. Materials and methods

2.1. Data source

To assess the evolution of China's pelagic fisheries management, we used official statistics data, as these data provided comparatively reliable information. In 1985–1988, the data came from the Forty Years of Chinese Fisheries Statistics [7], and after 1988 from the Chinese Fisheries Statistical Yearbooks (Fig. 1, Fig. 2). Fig. 1, Fig. 2 clearly depict the fluctuations in the number of fishing vessels and the output of pelagic fisheries, thereby illustrating the outcomes of three phases of China's pelagic fisheries management (detailed information seen in Section 3).

Fig. 1.

The pelagic fishing vessel numbers in China from 1985 to 2022.

Fig. 2.

The pelagic fisheries output comparative to the total marine fisheries output in China from 1985 to 2022(Unit: ten thousand tons).

This study examines the legislative framework for China's pelagic fisheries management from 1985 onwards to ascertain the developmental attributes of China's pelagic fisheries management (Table 1, Table 2, Table 3), which include international agreements China has ratified, the RFMOs China has joined in, as well as national laws, administrative regulations, and policies. These international agreements, RFMOs, national regulations and policies come from the Chinese government's official websites, including the Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs' (MARA) official website, which reflects the historical evolution and the notable obstacles faced in pelagic fisheries management. Furthermore, prior to conducting the analysis, this paper consolidates and organizes relevant information from multiple sources on pelagic fisheries, which are not explicitly outlined as separate regulations and policies.

Table 1.

The pertinent international agreements, RFMOs, national regulations and policies (1985–1997).

levels	area	Agreements, RFMOs, regulations and policies	The time of ratification, participation or implementation
International level	Global agreement	the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS)	1996
		the United Nations Fish Stocks Agreement (UNFSA)	1996
	Regional agreement	the Convention on the Conservation and Management of Central Bering Sea Cod Resources (CCMCBS)	1994
		the International Commission for the Conservation of Atlantic Tuna (ICCAT)	1996
	Bilateral agreement	the Fisheries Collaboration Agreements with African nations and the USA	1985–1997
Domestic level	Regulations	The Fisheries Law of the People's Republic of China (《中华人民共和国渔业法》)	1986
	Policies	The Directive of the CPC Central Committee and the State Council on Relaxing Policies and Accelerating the Development of Aquaculture (the No. 5 Central Document) (⟪中共中央、国务院关于放宽政策、加速发展水产业的指示⟫) (中发❲1985❳5号)	1985
		the Report on the Ninth Five Year Plan for National Economic and Social Development and the Outline of Long-term Objectives for 2010(⟪中共中央关于制定国民经济和社会发展“九五”计划和2010年远景目标的建议⟫)	1996

Table 2.

The pertinent international agreements, RFMOs, national regulations and policies (1998–2015).

levels	area	Agreements, RFMOs, regulations and policies	The time of ratification, participation and implementation
International level	Global agreement	the Agreement on Port State Measures to Prevent. Deter and Eliminate Illegal, Unreported and Unregulated Fishing (PSMA)	China hasn't ratified it.
	Regional agreement	the Indian Ocean Tuna Commission (IOTC)	1998
		the Western and Central Pacific Fisheries Commission (WCPFC)	2004
		the Commission for the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources (CCAMLR)	2007
		the South Pacific Fisheries Commission (SPFC)	2013
	Bilateral agreement	the Fisheries Collaboration Agreements with over 30 countries or regions	1985–2015
Domestic level	Regulations	the several revisions of the Fisheries Law(⟪渔业法⟫数次修订)	2000, 2004, 2009, 2013
		the Regulation on the Management of Pelagic Fisheries(⟪远洋渔业管理规定⟫)	2003, revised in 2004 and 2016
	Policies	the “Master Plan for the Development of China's Pelagic Fisheries 2001–2010"(⟪我国远洋渔业发展总体规划(2001-2010年)⟫)	2001
		the Notice on Strengthening the Supervision and Administration of Fishing Vessels Working Overseas(⟪农业部、外交部、公安部、海关总署关于加强对赴境外作业渔船监督管理的通知⟫)	2007
		the Notice on Adjusting the Oil Price Subsidy Policy to Promote the Sustainable and Healthy Development of Fisheries(⟪关于调整油价补贴政策促进渔业持续健康发展的通知⟫)	2015

Table 3.

The pertinent international agreements, RFMOs, national regulations and policies (2016–2024).

levels	area	Agreements, RFMOs, regulations and policies	The time of ratification, participation and implementation
International level	Global agreement	the Fisheries Subsidies Agreement and its protocols	2023
		the Agreement on Marine Biodiversity of Areas Beyond National Jurisdiction (BBNJ)	2023
	Regional agreement	the Southern Indian Ocean Fisheries Commission (SIOFA)	2019
	Bilateral agreement	the Fisheries Collaboration Agreements with more than 40 countries or regions	1985–2024
Domestic level	regulations	the Provisions of Administration of Fishing Licenses(⟪渔业捕捞许可管理规定⟫)	2019
		the latest revision of the Fisheries Law(⟪渔业法⟫最近一次修订)	Started in 2019
		the Regulations on the Pelagic Fisheries Management(⟪远洋渔业管理规定⟫)	2020
	policies	the Implementation Rules for the Management of Observers of Pelagic Fisheries(⟪远洋渔业国家观察员管理实施细则⟫)	2016
		“13th Five-Year Plan” for the Development of Pelagic Fisheries (⟪“十三五”全国远洋渔业发展规划⟫)	2017
		the Notice on Strengthening the Safety Management of Pelagic Fisheries and Strictly Preventing Foreign-Related Violations (⟪农业农村部办公厅关于进一步加强远洋渔业安全管理 严防发生涉外违规事件的通知⟫)	2018
		the Notice Outlining the Implementation of the Fishery Development Subsidy Policy (⟪农业农村部办公厅 财政部办公厅关于做好2021年渔业发展补助政策实施工作的通知⟫)	2021

2.2. Research method

To better understand China's management of pelagic fisheries, international agreements, RFMOs requirements, national regulations, and policies were analyzed chronologically through content analysis. Content analysis is frequently employed in the examination of text-based materials [8]. Therefore, after organizing the collected documents chronologically, a thorough examination was conducted to develop a comprehensive understanding of the contents pertaining to pelagic fisheries management. In addition, smaller units of meaning should be grouped into categories to aid in identifying characteristics and patterns [9]. Hence, the study focuses on the elements of international agreements, RFMOs requirements, national regulations, and policies to explore the relevant characteristics of China's pelagic fisheries management evolution.

3. Results

Since 1985, China has shown an increasing attention to pelagic fisheries. And during nearly forty years of development, there has been a significant transition in the management priorities of China's pelagic fisheries, moving from a primary focus on optimizing economic values to emphasizing resources conservation [10]. To gain a more comprehensive understanding of this notable transition, the evolution of Chinese pelagic fisheries management can be segmented into three distinct phases. Each phase of evolution was subject to limitations imposed by international agreements, RFMO requirements, and national regulations and policies. Then Table 1, Table 2, Table 3 provide a detailed overview of the significant international agreements ratified by China, the RFMOs joined by China, as well as the national regulations and policies that have shaped the development of pelagic fisheries and supervision framework within the country. Additionally, Fig. 1 shows the variations in the number of pelagic fishing vessels in China during three evolutionary stages. Fig. 2 illustrates the changes in pelagic fisheries output and its contribution to China's overall marine fisheries output from 1985 to 2022. In Fig. 3, the evolution of China's management of pelagic fisheries is depicted, emphasizing the shifting of management objectives, as well as the transfer of focus of participation in international and regional fishery management, as well as domestic pelagic fisheries management.

Fig. 3.

The structure diagrammatic sketch on evolutionary phases of pelagic fisheries management in China.

3.1. Phase 1: the period of starting and accelerated development (1985–1997)

China experienced a period of starting and accelerated growth in its pelagic fisheries from 1985 to 1997. As the economic reforms and opening up in China began in 1978, it progressively enhanced international cooperation, which enabled pelagic fisheries to step up and accelerate development [11].

China has officially endorsed numerous significant international and regional fisheries agreements, as well as various bilateral agreements with major fishing nations (Table 1). For example, China ratified the UNCLOS in 1996, which established general provisions for fishing cooperation in EEZs and fishing freedom on the high seas. China ratified the UNFSA in the same year, which is a detailed regulatory system designed to protect and oversee fishery resources in both EEZs and high seas. Additionally, China joined the CCMCBS in 1994 at a regional level, which urges members to enhance collaboration to effectively conduct conservation and management efforts for cod resources in this area. China became a member of the ICCAT in 1996, a prominent RFMO, committing to enhance collaboration for the sustainable utilization of tuna and related marine resources in the Atlantic Ocean.

The Chinese national government has expanded bilateral fisheries collaboration with African nations like Guinea-Bissau, Senegal, and Sierra Leone, as well as with key fishery nations such as the US and the EU. This led to marine fishing enterprises from Shanghai, Dalian, and Yantai starting fishing activities in the EEZs of other countries and on the high seas, which signaled the start and rapid development of China's pelagic fisheries [12].

Furthermore, in alignment with global efforts to conserve and manage marine fishery populations, China has enacted a variety of national regulations and policies to enhance its management of pelagic fisheries, while simultaneously accelerating their development (Table 1). For example, the Fisheries Law, promulgated in 1986, incorporating fishing activities into a system of legal regulation [13], stipulates the pelagic fishing permit system, requiring the pelagic fishing vessels which would operate in the EEZs of other countries or on the high seas obtain fishing approval issued by the Fishery Administration Bureau under the State Council, and comply with the relevant agreements concluded by China, as well as the laws of relevant countries (Articles 23). Simultaneously, it mandate the State would promote and facilitate the growth of pelagic fisheries (Articles 14, 15). And China introduced some policies to support pelagic fisheries. For example, in 1985 China released the No. 5 Central Document to organize qualified fishing vessels to rationally develop pelagic fisheries, meanwhile supporting pelagic fisheries to alleviate the fishing pressure on coastal fishery resources. In 1996, China published the Report on the Ninth Five-Year Plan for National Economic and Social Development and the Outline of Long-term Objectives for 2010, which included provisions for significant subsidies for improving the equipment of pelagic fisheries, such as profit subsidies, cost reduction subsidies [14].

During this period, China initiated and accelerated the development of pelagic fisheries and improved the management through active support of international treaties, participation in RFMOs, negotiation of bilateral fishery cooperation agreements with multiple nations, and implementation of comprehensive national regulations and policies. In 1997, the pelagic fisheries witnessed a significant surge in growth, with production reaching 1.037 million tons (Fig. 1), marking a more than 100-fold increase from the 4680 tons recorded in 1985 (Fig. 2). It has also been shown that the number of pelagic fishing vessels has significantly increased from 13 in 1985 to 1302 in 1997 (Fig. 2).

3.2. Phase 2: the period of progressive engagement in international fisheries governance (1998–2015)

During the latter half of the 20th century, most fishing countries including China faced significant depletion of global fishery resources. To mitigate the depletion of fishery resources worldwide, several international agreements, particularly Agenda 21, established a new framework for resource management in the 21st century, emphasizing the adoption of environmentally sustainable practices [13,15]. Hence, in this period, China has instituted heightened management modifications at both the international and domestic levels to improve its engagement in international fisheries governance, as well as strengthen its domestic fisheries management practices (Table 2).

With the global efforts to improve fisheries management, China has demonstrated a strong commitment to addressing sustainable fishing practices by actively engaging in international fisheries governance. For example, from 2008 to 2009, 91 member countries, including China, achieved consensus on the drafting of the text of the PSMA, which was officially implemented in 2016 requiring members to use port measures as a crucial tool in addressing IUU fishing. China, although not a signatory to the PSMA, actively supports and works with the international community to combat IUU fishing [5]. Regionally, China became a member of the IOTC in 1998, the WCPFC in 2004, the CCAMLR in 2007, and the SPFC in 2013. All these indicate that China has been actively engaged in regional fishery management under multiple RFMOs. Moreover, China has entered into over 30 bilateral agreements with various countries or regions to facilitate the deployment of China's pelagic fishing vessels in their EEZs.

To conform with progressively stringent international fisheries management requirements, China has iteratively amended its national regulations and policies on pelagic fisheries management. For example, the Fisheries Law was revised on four occasions in the years 2000, 2004, 2009, and 2013. The most significant revision in 2000 resulted in the removal of key institutional barriers and the enhancement of the management system, such as implementing a fishing quota system and fishing log system, and requiring fishing operations in Sino-foreign jointly managed fishing areas and international waters to acquire fishing licenses [16]. In contrast, the subsequent revisions in 2004, 2009, and 2013 did not greatly alter the overall framework of the Fisheries Law.

The Pelagic Fisheries Management Regulation was enacted in 2003, which was amended in 2004 and 2016 [17]. The Regulation provides detailed guidelines regarding the procedures for applying for and obtaining approval for pelagic fisheries projects, enterprise eligibility and validating projects, and the management of vessels and crews. Under the Regulation, the primary management measures for pelagic fisheries include: 1)establishing a fishing database to monitor and record the operations of fishing vessels and the state of resources [18,19]; 2) implementing catch control measures like fishing licenses, gear regulations, and a total allowable catch system [20]; 3) assigning observers to fishing vessels to supervise fishing activities [21].

In addition, China has issued some policies to promote the transformation of pelagic fisheries [22]. For example, the “Master Plan for the Development of China's Pelagic Fisheries 2001–2010″ was introduced in 2001 to improve the sustainability of the EEZs fisheries and prioritize the development of pelagic fisheries. In 2007, the Notice on Strengthening the Supervision and Administration of Fishing Vessels Working Overseas was enacted to strengthen the management of pelagic fishing vessels. In 2015, the Notice on Adjusting the Oil Price Subsidy Policy to Promote the Sustainable and Healthy Development of Fisheries was released, stipulating that 20 % of subsidy funds will be allocated as special transfer payment for vessels reduction, production conversion, the renewal and transformation of fishing vessels, and 80 % will be distributed as general transfer payments to help cover fishery production costs, production transfers, and other aspects of fishery production [23].

During this period, there was a significant rise in the rigorous supervision of international marine fisheries and the amendment of the national regulatory system. With the implementation of stricter international fishery regulations, and ongoing improvements in national pelagic fisheries management, China observed a reduction in pelagic fisheries production from 913,100 tons in 1998 to 884,900 tons in 2001 (Fig. 2) [24]. However, since 2002 China's pelagic fisheries production exhibited fluctuating growth, culminating in a total of 2192,000 tons in 2015, with 2512 pelagic fishing vessels (Fig. 1, Fig. 2). This growth of pelagic fisheries can be attributed primarily to the substantial transformations in the structure of China's pelagic fisheries, which have been marked by a consistent rise in the proportion of pelagic fisheries, changing the previous disproportionate dependence on EEZs fisheries in foreign nations [25].

3.3. Phase 3: the period of prioritizing the ecological advancement of the pelagic fisheries (2016–2024)

During the latter part of the 21st century, China's pelagic fisheries have emerged as a key player in global ocean fishing, with top rankings in output and fleet after more than 30 years of development. Nevertheless, Chinese pelagic fisheries are facing ongoing challenges due to declining global fish stocks and stricter international fishery regulations. Then, given the context, China's pelagic fisheries management is currently undergoing a deep adjustment, with a strong focus on the ecological pelagic fisheries by effectively conserve fishery resources and strengthening the oversight of pelagic fishing vessels (Table 3).

Internationally, the Fisheries Subsidies Agreement and its protocols were ratified by the 12th Ministerial Conference (MC12) of the WTO in 2022, showcasing an innovative strategy by establishing a coherent connection between fisheries subsidy practices and the promotion of sustainable development. China formally submitted the ratification of the Protocol to the WTO Fisheries Subsidies Agreement in 2023 [26]. In 2023, China also signed the Agreement on Marine Biodiversity of Areas beyond National Jurisdiction (BBNJ), the major goal of which is to conserve and sustainably manage marine biodiversity in international waters. Furthermore, China became a member of the SIOFA at a regional level in 2019, which was established under the Southern Indian Ocean Fisheries Agreement in 2012. China has conducted fishery operations within the EEZs of over 40 countries and regions according to the bilateral cooperation agreements.

In addition, China has enhanced the modification and implementation of national regulations and policies to place greater emphasis on the conservation of marine fisheries resources. As an example, the Provisions of Administration of Fishing Licenses (PAFL) was reauthorized in 2018 and amended in 2020, which emphasizes the importance of conserving and managing fishery resources, regulating fishing activities, and safeguarding the lawful rights and interests of fishery stakeholders. And since 2019 the comprehensive revision of the Fisheries Law has been prioritized again. For now, the revision of the Fisheries Law has gotten the consensus by relevant governmental bodies following extensive research and careful consideration [13]. In 2020 the Pelagic Fisheries Management Regulation was updated, commencing enforcement on April 1st, 2020 [18]. In contrast to its predecessor, the new Regulation demonstrates four unique features: compliance with international management standards, improvement of safety protocols, increased penalties for non-compliance, and simplification of administrative procedures. And according to the new Regulation, China has implemented a range of management measures for pelagic fisheries, such as standardizing fishing logs, tracking fishing vessel positions, deploying national observers, issuing fishing licenses, assessing pelagic fisheries performance, and creating “blacklist” systems [27].

China has also issued various policies to enhance the supervision of pelagic fishing, such as the 2016 Rules for Observer Control in Pelagic Fisheries, the 2017 ′13th Five-Year Plan’ for Pelagic Fisheries Development, and the 2018 Directive on Improving Safety Management and Preventing Foreign Affairs Incidents in Pelagic Fisheries. Especially, in 2021 the Notice Outlining the Implementation of the Fishery Development Subsidy Policy, which aims to support the establishment of pelagic fishery bases, the refurbishment of pelagic fishing vessels and their onboard facilities and equipment, as well as the exploration of fishery resources [28].

During this period, China is concentrating on enhancing its pelagic fisheries management by speeding up transitions and improving operations to comply with more stringent international regulations on ecological fisheries. Since 2020, China's pelagic fisheries production and fleet have demonstrated stability, with production consistently hovering around 2.25 million tons and the number of pelagic fishing vessels remaining at approximately 2500 (Fig. 1, Fig. 2) [1]. China has successfully developed a cluster of ocean fishing industries in coastal regions, including Shandong, Zhejiang, and Fujian. Moreover, China has established over 30 overseas bases for pelagic fisheries and created more than 100 representative offices, joint ventures, and logistics supply bases abroad [29].

4. Discussion

An analysis of the aforementioned three evolutionary phases delineates the trajectory of the pelagic fisheries management in China. Initially, the focus was put on promoting the rapid expansion of pelagic fisheries. Subsequently, the emphasis shifted to a passive engagement in international fisheries governance. Finally, it was followed by a focus transition towards achieving ecological sustainability in pelagic fisheries practices. This clear trajectory of the pelagic fisheries management in China has been shaped by the interconnected influences of increasingly stricter global fisheries regulations, progressively rigorous requirements from RFMOs, and continuously adjustment and improvement of national fisheries regulations and policies in China. However, the protracted and intricate evolution spanning nearly four decades has revealed certain deficiencies in the management practices. Thus, this study has identified five specific aspects that are facing challenges in the development of pelagic fisheries management.

4.1. Inadequate pelagic fisheries management

To conserve and manage fisheries resources, China has enacted, revised, and implemented regulations and policies following international requirements. Despite the significant role that these regulations and policies have played in overseeing pelagic fishing vessels and governing the activities of their crews, instances of noncompliance persist among individual Chinese pelagic fishing vessels in the EEZs of other nations and on the high seas, which have had detrimental effects on China's reputation as a responsible fishing nation on the global stage [30,31]. For example, in 2018 the fishing vessels owned by Zhangzidao Yifeng Aquatic Products Co., Ltd. conducted fishing activities within the EEZs of Gambia without obtaining the required authorization [32]. In the same year, several Chinese pelagic fishing vessels were accused of engaging in IUU fishing without the requisite registration on the high seas of the South Pacific. All these violations could be primarily attributed to the constrained managerial capabilities of governmental authorities.

Presently the majority of fishing permits for China's pelagic fishing vessels are sanctioned by the Fishery Bureau under the MARA under the Fisheries Law, which regulates that the fishing operations conducted in the areas under common management as specified in the agreements between China and relevant countries, or on the high seas must acquire fishing licenses from the Fishery Bureau. However, compared to a substantial number of pelagic fishing vessels, the Fishery Bureau's limited personnel results in a lack of capacity to effectively supervise the large pelagic fishing fleet.

Moreover, the current regulations and policies have demonstrated a lack of effectiveness in implementing improved emergency response protocols for safety incidents occurring in international waters. The current safety conditions of China's pelagic fishing vessels are not promising. Certain enterprises demonstrate shortcomings in their comprehension and execution of safety protocols, thereby impeding their capacity to effectively address security breaches, occasionally leading to incidents with global ramifications. In addition, certain Chinese crew members possess a restricted understanding of safe production practices, thereby hindering the effective implementation of risk prevention protocols and timely response to emergencies. While China employs national observers and electronic monitoring to enforce compliance with safety regulations set by relevant RFMOs, there remains a necessity to enhance technical oversight for the timely detection of fishing vessels to mitigate security incidents [33].

4.2. Unreasonable subsidies for pelagic fisheries

During the 1980s, China identified the development of pelagic fisheries as a crucial strategy for safeguarding future food security due to the extensive degradation of its coastal marine resources. Hence, China has introduced a range of subsidy policies, including tax exemptions, fuel subsidies, insurance support, and diplomatic assistance, to promote the growth of pelagic fisheries [34]. The objective of these subsidies is to efficiently exploit global marine fishery resources and gain a competitive edge in the pelagic fisheries, thereby ensuring a consistent seafood supply and supporting fishermen's livelihoods [14]. Therefore, the fishery subsidies in China have had a considerable influence on the management of pelagic fisheries and have played a significant role in shaping the overall structure of these fisheries.

However, China's subsidies for pelagic fisheries have also contributed to domestic overcapacity and adversely affected the sustainability of fisheries and marine environments. Among the subsidies, the fuel subsidies are considered the most significant and the largest amount of funding [35], which have led to a notable rise in the number of pelagic fishing vessels. From 1994 to 2005, there was an increase of 124 % in the number of pelagic fishing vessels, rising from 948 to 2122 (Fig. 2). Nevertheless, the increase in output of pelagic fisheries is only 109 %, rising from 688,300 tons in 1994 to 1438,100 tons in 2005. Furthermore, the fishery subsidies contribute to the persistence of fishing vessels that ought to have been decommissioned, resulting in overcapacity within pelagic fisheries and increased risk to the safety of fishing operations.

4.3. Constraints in equipment and technology

The equipment quality and technological advancement of pelagic fisheries significantly impact the efficiency and safety of production. Currently, given the high costs of the new fishing vessels, Chinese pelagic fishing enterprises tend to rely on older vessels to reduce the expenses. Consequently, the transition of fishing vessels to more modern models is a gradual process, with the majority of outdated vessels still being utilized in pelagic fisheries [33]. In addition, the fishing vessels demonstrate suboptimal levels of production efficiency, limited mechanization and automation, which pose challenges to the management of pelagic fisheries due to their outdated nature and insufficient security measures.

Moreover, despite China's leading position in shipbuilding globally, there remains a significant shortage of high-quality fishing vessels. China's constrained capacities in the research of auxiliary equipment and processing vessels have resulted in a substantial dependence on imported equipment historically. The technical barriers imposed by developed countries, as well as constrained capital investment in equipment and insufficient funding for researches in China have all substantially hindered the development of China's pelagic fisheries. Facing these challenges, China's Ministry of Science and Technology initiated the ‘Pelagic Fishery Fishing Equipment’ project to produce advanced fishing vessels in 2008 [36]. In 2010, the domestically manufactured Chinese tuna seine fishing vessel “Jinhui No. 8″ significantly contributed to the advancement of Chinese pelagic fishing vessels [37]. In 2022, China successfully designed and constructed the first fishery fishing and processing vessel, named “Deep Blue” [38]. As advancements in ship design and construction continue to progress, there remains a significant disparity in meeting the demand for pelagic fisheries. Therefore, improving the equipment and technology standards of these vessels has become a critical priority in the advancement of China's pelagic fisheries.

4.4. Limited stakeholders engage in management

The primary governing entity for pelagic fisheries in China is the Fishery Bureau within the MARA. This Bureau is tasked with the regulation of pelagic fishing operations, as well as the monitoring of safe production protocols within enterprises and among crews. The public's oversight responsibilities, encompassing fishing associations, fishery enterprises and their employees, and other stakeholders, have not been sufficiently prioritized in the management of pelagic fisheries [39]. In recent years, there has been a notable increase in the involvement of fishing associations and fishery enterprises in pelagic fisheries management, with a growing emphasis on broader participation in management. However, there remains a deficiency in active public engagement in oversight and a failure to effectively carry out supervisory responsibilities, hindering the establishment of a comprehensive polycentric governance framework for pelagic fisheries.

Moreover, due to the increased need for manual labor resulting from the rapid growth of the pelagic fishery industry in China, a significant influx of workers from rural areas with limited cultural and skill proficiencies has entered the industry. These employees with lower levels of education frequently exhibit a lack of safety knowledge and awareness, making them more susceptible to noncompliance with regulations and policies, as well as hindering their ability to engage in pelagic fisheries management [40]. The Chinese government has introduced enhancements to training programs for pelagic fisheries crews, resulting in a notable improvement in their proficiency and skills. Nevertheless, despite these advancements, their proficiency, skills, and level of supervision remain below the stringent requirements of pelagic fisheries management.

4.5. Conflicting maritime interests with other nations

Presently the management of the global pelagic fisheries is overseen by RFMOs, which are implementing increasingly strict regulatory measures. The members of RFMOs can be broadly categorized into two groups: coastal nations and pelagic fishing nations. Coastal nations within RFMOs typically prioritize marine conservation efforts, whereas pelagic fishing nations focus more on maximizing fishing production. Hence, the collaboration between coastal nations and pelagic fishing nations is challenging, particularly due to the need to promote the sustainable management of fishery resources and address the divergent interests of participating countries [41]. In recent years, coastal nations have increasingly implemented stringent fishing regulations and enhanced monitoring of foreign fishing fleets within their EEZs, including deploying naval and maritime law enforcement forces to safeguard their fisheries [4]. This exacerbates the tensions between coastal nations and pelagic fishing nations including China, resulting in increased risks and challenges for pelagic fisheries in the EEZs and on the high seas.

Moreover, the ongoing efforts of RFMOs and coastal countries to enhance the conservation and management of fishery resources in international waters have resulted in a reduction in available quotas of fish stocks within RFMOs. Consequently, motivated by the interests, some fishing enterprises have begun to engage in IUU fishing activities in the EEZs of coastal nations and on the high seas, which has exacerbated the challenges associated with pelagic fisheries management in China and other pelagic fishing nations.

5. Future outlook for pelagic fisheries management in China

In general, China's pelagic fisheries management is progressing towards increased regulatory supervision with an emphasis on resource conservation and sustainability. Throughout the evolutionary phases of China's pelagic fisheries management, various challenges have emerged in the management practices. In light of these challenges, it is imperative to consider where China may go next to effectively address them and ascertain the future trajectory for pelagic fisheries management.

5.1. Enhancing the management system of pelagic fisheries

China has established a management system for pelagic fisheries, which encompasses components such as fishing certification, fishing vessel position monitoring, national observers, and fishing logs reporting systems [31]. The Fishery Bureau of MARA has established coordination, supervision, and management mechanisms that integrate with other departments. For example, since 2019 MARA has collaborated with the Ministry of Foreign Affairs (MFA), the Ministry of Public Security (MPS), the Ministry of Transport (MT), the General Administration of Customs (GAC), and the State Administration of Market Supervision (SAMS), to enforce port state measures to combat IUU fishing [32].

Despite the establishment of a preliminary pelagic fisheries management system in China, instances of illegal pelagic fishing activities and international conflicts have persisted in recent years [42]. Then it is recommended that the management system of pelagic fisheries in China should be enhanced through the following aspects in the future: 1) Promoting the improvement of the regulations and policies for pelagic fisheries management. For instance, it is essential to integrate a precautionary approach into the regulations and policies to guarantee safe operations of pelagic fisheries; 2) Improving regulatory enforcement and policy implementation, particularly through the rigorous application of the “blacklist” system, and undertaking decisive measures against IUU fishing; 3) Deploying electronic monitoring system on all pelagic fishing vessels to enhance positional tracking capabilities, and encourage the adoption of electronic fishing logs to achieve data-driven pelagic fisheries administration; 4) Improving the observer coverage ratio for pelagic fishing vessels to adhere to global regulatory standards; 5) Implementing a precautionary system for potential risks and enhancing the safety measures in pelagic fisheries operation.

5.2. Reforming subsidies for pelagic fisheries

Given that fishery subsidies have a significant influence on the development of pelagic fisheries and their management, China has implemented reforms to the fishery subsidies policies since 2015, allocating more funds towards initiatives such as ship reduction and production conversion for fishermen, construction of fishery equipment and infrastructure. These measures have resulted in notable economic, social, and ecological benefits, particularly in enhancing fishermen's income, preserving marine resources, and facilitating the modernization of the fisheries industry. In 2023, China ratified the Protocol to the WTO Fisheries Subsidies Agreement, which indicated that China should limit and adjust the fishery subsidies leading to the overcapacity of fishing vessels and the depletion of fishery resources, to promote the development of China's fishery in green and efficient means [43].

Nevertheless, the current reform of pelagic fisheries subsidies falls short in incentivizing compliance with international conventions and promoting the high-quality development of pelagic fisheries. In the future, the fishery subsidies on pelagic fisheries are expected to be reformed through the following aspects: 1) Undertaking a thorough review of the existing pelagic fisheries subsidy policies, terminating harmful subsidies that negatively impact resources and environment; 2) Efficiently discontinue subsidy funding for non-compliant enterprises within the pelagic fisheries sector, and impose stringent penalties as necessary; 3) Enhancing subsidies aimed at preserving fishery resources to facilitate the sustainable advancement of pelagic fisheries.

5.3. Prioritizing the significance of science and technology

After almost four decades of advancement, China's pelagic fisheries have developed a robust scientific and technological framework that includes fishing technology, fishery exploration, equipment, and forecasting [44]. The government encourages innovation in the field of science and technology to facilitate the accelerated development of pelagic fisheries. For instance, the utilization of Beidou satellite communications and 5G technology in pelagic fishing vessels have greatly enhanced China's monitoring capabilities in pelagic fisheries [45]. In 2019, China unveiled the “Guoxin-1″ large fishing vessel, characterized as an ‘aircraft carrier class' vessel capable of carrying nearly 1000 tons of catches. This vessel is distinguished by its emphasis on full automation and unmanned operation, as well as the integration of various intelligent systems including the automatic identification system, automatic control system, and automatic positioning system.

Overall, an increased emphasis on science and technology in pelagic fisheries has spurred technological advancements, enhanced production efficiency, and accelerated the growth of pelagic fisheries finally. In the future, China should prioritize the enhancement of pelagic fisheries management through the implementation of the following approaches in science and technology: 1) Promoting the expedited advancement and utilization of novel technologies, materials, and energy sources for the enhancement of outdated fishing vessels and equipment, ultimately aiming to establish domestic production of essential fishing vessel equipment; 2) Advancing the deep processing sector, enhancing the development of modern cold chain logistics infrastructure, and facilitating the implementation of a highly digitalized logistics network; 3) Improving the technological capacities for exploring fishery resources and forecasting in the pelagic fisheries sector to enhance operational efficiency; 4) Advocating for the development of pelagic fisheries science and technology centers, academic research institutions, and resource assessment facilities, along with the education and training of professionals in the pelagic fisheries sector.

5.4. Promoting stakeholders’ engagement in management

The primary stakeholders of China's pelagic fisheries consist of fishing associations, fishery enterprises, employees, and the governments [46]. Due to the complex transnational nature of pelagic fisheries, it is essential to establish a polycentric governance framework that prioritizes stakeholder involvement to enhance their participation in decision-making processes. The fishing associations play a crucial role as intermediaries between governmental entities and fishing enterprises, facilitating the exchange of industry viewpoints with government bodies on the advancement of pelagic fisheries, engaging in collaborative efforts with governments to collect and evaluate industry-specific data, and contributing to the formulation of more effective management strategies. It is also imperative for fishery enterprises and their employees to engage in communication with industry associations and governmental bodies regarding the dissemination of production and market information, as well as the identification and discussion of challenges encountered in both production and sales processes. The governments are integral actors in polycentric governance, actively soliciting and evaluating input from diverse stakeholders, and promptly adjusting existing regulations or formulating new policies to promote the sustainable development of pelagic fisheries [31].

Currently, there is insufficient involvement of fishery enterprises and their employees in pelagic fisheries management. It is essential to strengthen and augment the involvement and supervisory duties of these stakeholders through the implementation of the following methods: 1) emphasizing the significant role of governmental entities in enforcing management regulations and policies, the obligation of enterprises to comply with safety production regulations, and the coordinating role of fishing associations in overseeing stakeholders; 2) In crafting the management regulations and policies, priority should be given to safeguarding the legitimate rights and interests of all stakeholders and expanding the avenues for stakeholders’ participation in pelagic fisheries management; 3) Improving the regulatory proficiency of fishery personnel during fishing activities, as well as raising public consciousness and fostering the reporting of IUU fishing through educational programs and promotional campaigns.

5.5. Enhancing international collaboration

Improving international cooperation is an essential tactic for advancing the sustainable development of global marine fisheries [18]. International collaboration has the potential to improve the effective utilization of fishery resources, markets, scientific expertise, and technological innovations across various countries, thereby fostering the advancement of pelagic fisheries [47,48]. China has consistently promoted mutually beneficial cooperation and actively engaged in regional and global fisheries governance. Presently China has entered into fishery cooperation agreements or memoranda of understanding with more than forty countries and is a member of eight RFMOs that encompass the high sea of the primary worldwide oceans, as well as has actively engaged in the activities of over 30 international organizations related to fisheries, including the WTO and the IMO.

However, China's engagement in international fisheries cooperation remains inadequate, necessitating further enhancement of its presence and impact on global fisheries governance. In the future, China should strengthen cooperation in fisheries across multiple tiers by employing the following strategies to augment engagement and direction in the formulation of international fishery regulations, as well as to fortify its impact and presence in global fishery management: 1) Given the important role that pelagic fisheries bases play in facilitating technical exchanges and collaborations among enterprises from various countries [20], it is imperative for the government to actively promote the establishment of pelagic fisheries bases overseas and cultivate mutually beneficial partnerships with other nations; 2) Strengthening the cooperation in combating IUU fishing both regionally and internationally in order to protect the security of production and promote the sustainable development of pelagic fisheries on a global level [31]; 3) China should strengthen partnerships with other countries through regional or international organizations to promote the survey, research, and conservation of fishery resources.

6. Conclusion

Over nearly forty years, China's pelagic fisheries have undergone significant progress, resulting in advancements in management. Conversely, the enhancement of China's pelagic fisheries management has significantly contributed to the sustainable development of these fisheries. Throughout the evolution of China's pelagic fisheries management, China has actively engaged in international fisheries management and enhanced domestic pelagic fisheries management by ratifying international fishery agreements, participating in RFMOs, and enforcing a set of regulations and policies. The intricate evolutionary period can be categorized into three distinct phases: rapid development, adjustment development, and sustainable development. In general, the three phases are interconnected yet not quite different. The trajectory of China's pelagic fisheries management is marked by continual adaptations to conform to evolving international fishery management standards, bolster the global competitiveness of China's pelagic fisheries, and elevate China's reputation and influence as a responsible fishing nation.

However, despite China's achievements in pelagic fisheries management, it continues to expose numerous deficiencies, such as inadequate management, unreasonable subsidies, restriction of equipment and technology, limited stakeholders engaged in management, and conflicting maritime interests with other nations. Hence, it is imperative for China to enhance its initiatives in promoting the transition of pelagic fisheries management towards a more auspicious future by addressing the following crucial areas: 1)Enhancing pelagic fisheries management system, such as promoting the improvement and enforcement of the regulations and policies, deploying electronic monitoring system, improving observer coverage ratio and implementing precautionary system; 2) Improving subsidies for pelagic fisheries, such as reviewing the existing subsidy policies, terminating harmful subsidies, and strengthening the subsidies for resources conservation; 3) Prioritizing the significance of science and technology, such as promoting the development and utilization of new equipment and advanced technology, and establishing the science and technology centers on pelagic fisheries; 4) Enhancing stakeholders engagement in management processes, such as safeguarding the legitimate rights and interests of all stakeholders, expanding the avenues for stakeholders' participation in the management, and enhancing the oversight knowledge of crew members; 5)Enhancing international fishery collaboration across various levels, such as promoting the development of pelagic fisheries bases abroad, strengthening cooperation on combating IUU fishing, and enhancing collaboration with other nations in the survey, research, and preservation of fishery resources.

Three highlighted points

• 1.Over nearly four decades, China's pelagic fishery management has undergone significant evolution, demonstrating a clear trajectory towards sustainability.
• 2.Despite some achievements in the evolution of China's pelagic fisheries management, it continues to encounter some challenges including inadequate management, unreasonable subsidies, equipment and technology constraints, limited stakeholders, and conflicting maritime interests.
• 3.In order to effectively address and predict the future trajectory of pelagic fisheries management in China, it is crucial to consider the recommendations such as improving the management system, reforming subsidies, emphasizing science and technology, encouraging stakeholder involvement, and fostering international collaboration.

Data availability statement

The data information of the pelagic fisheries in China has been deposited at Chinese Fishery Statistical Yearbooks published by the Fishery Bureau of the Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs in China through Chinese Agriculture Publishing House (Accessed address: https://www.cafs.ac.cn/aop_views/search/modules/resultpc/soso.html?query=eyJrZXlXb3JkIjoi5riU5Lia57uf6K6h5bm06Ym0Iiwib3duZXIiOiIxMzIzODcyNTE1IiwidG9rZW4iOiJcclxuXHJcblxyXG5cclxuXHJcblxyXG5cclxuXHJcblxyXG5cclxuXHJcbnRvdXJpc3RcclxuIiwidXJsUHJlZml4IjoiL2FvcF9jb21wb25lbnQvIiwibGFuZyI6ImkxOG5femhfQ04ifQ==).

Ethics declarations

Review and approval by an ethics committee was not needed for this study because it did not include the involvement of either human or animal subjects.

CRediT authorship contribution statement

Xiaolin Chu: Writing – review & editing, Writing – original draft, Supervision, Project administration, Investigation, Funding acquisition, Formal analysis, Data curation, Conceptualization.

Declaration of competing interest

The authors declare the following financial interests/personal relationships which may be considered as potential competing interests:

Xiaolin CHU reports article publishing charges and equipment, drugs, or supplies were provided by the Municipal Education Commission of Shanghai in China. Xiaolin CHU reports a relationship with the Municipal Education Commission of Shanghai in China that includes: funding grants. The auhor has not been employed by the Heliyon Journal. If there are other authors, they declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.