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. Author manuscript; available in PMC: 2024 Oct 4.
Published in final edited form as: J Community Appl Soc Psychol. 2022 Mar 3;32(5):882–895. doi: 10.1002/casp.2607

Acculturation, parenting stress, and children’s problem behaviours among immigrant Latinx mothers and fathers

Anna Cecilia McWhirter 1, Melissa R Donovick 2
PMCID: PMC11452048  NIHMSID: NIHMS1979412  PMID: 39371312

Abstract

The Latinx population in the United States has been growing steadily over the last few decades, necessitating the need to better understand the impact of stress and acculturation on Latinx parents and children to provide more targeted community supports. This study examines how parenting stress, within the context of acculturation, is associated with children’s internalizing and externalizing behaviours among newly immigrated Latinx families (n = 129). Correlational analyses were used to understand the relationship between acculturation, parenting stress for mothers and fathers, and children’s behaviour problems. Regression analyses were used to predict children’s behaviours when accounting for acculturation and parenting stress. Results indicated that parent acculturation was not associated with child problem behaviours for mothers or fathers. Maternal parenting stress was associated with child internalizing and externalizing behaviour problems, while paternal parenting stress was associated with child externalizing problems only. Implications and future directions for this research are discussed.

Keywords: acculturation, child problem behaviour, Latinx mothers and fathers, parenting stress

1 |. INTRODUCTION

The United States has experienced significant growth of immigrant populations over the past decade. The Hispanic/Latinx population has increased by 23% between 2010 and 2020, accounting for over half (51%) of the population growth from 2010 to 2020 (Pew Research Center, 2021). Within the United States, 33% of Latinos are immigrants (Pew Research Center, 2021). Many families immigrating to the United States confront a series of challenges, including being harmed on the journey to the United States (e.g., violence, sexual assault), acculturative stress from starting a new life away from family and culture (American Psychological Association, APA, 2019; Williams, Ayón, Marsiglia, Kiehne, & Ayers, 2017), prejudice and discrimination from those already living within the United States (APA, 2019; Betancourt et al., 2017; Hersch, 2010), and fear of deportation (Dreby, 2012). Immigration can lead to many parenting difficulties due to the separation from family and a supportive network, as well as cultural differences in discipline between the home country and the country of immigration (Leidy, Guerra, & Toro, 2012).

Low-income Latinx families experience significant mental health disparities, particularly considering the recent increase in anti-immigration narratives, which can lead to challenges in family life and parenting practices (Parra-Cardona, 2019). Some previous research has demonstrated that challenging family contextual factors such as acculturation can lead to increased strain and parenting stress for mothers (León-Pérez, Richards, & Non, 2021), which in turn can lead to increased child problem behaviours (Chung et al., 2012; Gassman-Pines & Skinner, 2018; Williams et al., 2017). While this evidence is significant, it is essential to gain a firmer understanding of the effects of these stressors on the parent–child relationship in newly immigrated Latinx families. Additionally, while much research has been conducted examining the relationships of acculturation context and family well-being with mothers (Figge, Martinez-Torteya, & Kosson, 2021; León-Pérez et al., 2021), the specific influence of these relationships with fathers is limited in the literature (Cabrera & Bradley, 2012). The present study seeks to understand relationships between mother’s and father’s acculturation levels, parenting stress, and their children’s problem behaviours.

2 |. ACCULTURATION LEVELS

Acculturation is the phenomena that occurs when a group of individuals from one culture comes into contact with another cultural group, resulting in changes in the cultural patterns of either or both groups (Caplan, 2007; Redfield, Linton, & Herskovits, 1936). This process includes social and psychological changes among groups and individuals as they enter a new cultural context (Miranda, Bilot, Peluso, Berman, & Van Meek, 2006). For example, individuals have to balance concerns such as choosing how much of their culture they wish to maintain and deciding the extent of contact and participation they want to have among other cultural groups (Berry, 1997). Experiences of discrimination, language and economic differences, lack of integration with the community and separation from family and friends in the country of origin can contribute to issues such as depression and acculturative stress for immigrant adults (Hovey & Comas-Díaz, 2000; Torres, 2010).

Acculturation has been found to affect mental health, parenting practices and behaviours of Latinx immigrant parents (Calzada, Sales, & O’Gara, 2019; Gassman-Pines & Skinner, 2018; Williams et al., 2017). Parents experiencing high levels of stress related to the acculturation process have reported lower levels of social support (Williams et al., 2017), and higher levels of depression and suicidal ideation (Calzada et al., 2019; Hovey & Comas-Díaz, 2000). However, the effects of acculturation for mothers have been mixed in the research. The potential negative effects of acculturation such as depression have been found to no longer be significant when mothers had family resources and social supports (Espeleta, Beasley, Bohora, Ridings, & Silovsky, 2019). Similarly, research has found that Mexican immigrant fathers who felt connected to both Latinx and U.S.-born Americans (vs. only Latinxs) engaged in fewer aversive and withdrawn interactions as well as more warm interactions with their children (Gassman-Pines & Skinner, 2018). When fathers felt more connected to both Latinx and U.S.-born Americans, similar dynamics were true for mothers, who also had fewer aversive or withdrawn interactions and more warm interactions with their children (Gassman-Pines & Skinner, 2018). Overall, cultural engagement of Latinx immigrant parents has been associated with positive parenting behaviours and family functioning, while cultural stress has been associated with detrimental parenting behaviours and family conflict (Williams et al., 2017). The variety of challenges faced by Latinx parents adjusting and acculturating to U.S. culture may additionally increase the risk of negative outcomes for their children, such as being unable to access or avoiding systems that may provide important services for their children (Calzada, Fernández, & Cortés, 2010; León-Pérez et al., 2021).

The acculturation process and discrepancies in parent and child acculturation levels present challenges for Latinx families (Berry, 2006; Smokowski, Rose, & Bacallao, 2008; Torres, Driscoll, Voell, & Zárate, 2012). For example, cultural stress in mothers was found to predict their preschoolers’ internalizing behaviours (Figge et al., 2021; Leon, 2014), which was moderated by maternal positive parenting practices with their child (Figge et al., 2021). Additionally, acculturation conflict among Latinx adolescents was related to parent–child conflict (Smokowski et al., 2008). As it is common for immigrant youth to be more oriented to U.S. culture and the English language, this can create challenges and stress for parents who expect their children to maintain traditional cultural values and language (Bostean & Gillespie, 2018; Parra-Cardona, 2019). Therefore, further investigating this relationship in middle childhood is important for understanding how acculturation levels are connected with child problem behaviours.

Despite the difficulties around acculturation, there are many protective factors within Latinx cultures that can contribute to children’s responses to immigration. Cultural characteristics including respeto and familismo can serve as protective factors for youth (Lorenzo-Blanco et al., 2016). Respeto refers to a hierarchical structure that can be present in Latinx communities involving differential behaviours towards others based on authority, and is particularly evident in the parent–child relationship due to the emphasis on obedience (Adames & Chavez-Dueñas, 2017; Calzada et al., 2010). Familismo includes placing an emphasis on supporting and relying on family, and is associated with collectivistic norms within Latinx cultures (Adames & Chavez-Dueñas, 2017). Familismo has been found to be associated with successful parenting practices among Hispanic parents of adolescents (Santisteban, Coatsworth, Briones, Kurtines, & Szapocznik, 2012). Parents’ collectivistic values and perceived discrimination has been found to predict higher parental familismo, which in turn has been found to predict higher levels of positive parenting practices (Lorenzo-Blanco et al., 2016). For example, prior research has found possible links between familismo and lower levels of parenting stress in Latinx families with children who have a developmental delay (Martin, Marin, McIntyre, & Neece, 2021). Considering the importance of these values and the unique concerns within the immigrant Latinx community, we utilized a theoretical framework that included these values.

This study utilized a culturally informed framework of Latinx parenting that attends to acculturation levels, parenting and socialization values, and how these are associated with children’s behaviours (Calzada et al., 2010). Calzada et al.’s (2010) model highlights an important relationship between acculturation, socialization messages, parenting practices, and child functioning. Specifically, the authors identify how parent acculturation influences socialization messages for children (e.g., respeto). These socialization messages inform parenting style, which in turn influence child functioning and behaviours. The cultural value of respeto is integrated with established European-American parenting styles (authoritarian, authoritative, and permissive) to offer a more culturally informed framework for understanding Latinx parenting (Calzada et al., 2010). This framework informs the present study by demonstrating a relationship between parent acculturation status and values, how they are related to parenting practices, and how these practices are connected with child outcomes. The current study seeks to investigate the associations of these relationships among a sample of newly immigrated Latinx families.

3 |. PARENTING STRESS AND CHILD PROBLEM BEHAVIOURS

Parenting stress is “a set of processes that lead to aversive psychological and physiological reactions arising from attempts to adapt to the demands of parenthood”, which is often experienced as negative feelings and beliefs about themselves and their children (Deater-Deckard, 2004, p. 6). Stress experienced within the parenting role is distinct from stress experienced within other areas of life, and the day-to-day strain of parenting is an important aspect of mental health and functioning for parents, children, and the parent–child relationship (Deater-Deckard, 2004). For immigrant mothers, contextual factors such as precarious working conditions has been found to be a significant source of parenting stress, particularly relating to finding childcare, having limited family time, and concerns about their child’s well-being (León-Pérez et al., 2021). Discrepancies between parents’ access to resources and the parenting demands also significantly contribute to parenting stress (Deater-Deckard, 2004). Hispanic and Asian mothers born outside of the United States have been found to report more stress than white mothers due to structural disadvantages and stricter parenting values generally experienced within these groups (Nomaguchi & House, 2013). Recognizing these sources of parenting stress is significant as parenting stress can contribute to various mental health problems for caregivers. For example, higher levels of parenting stress and less-perceived social support have been found to be associated with higher levels of depression, negative parenting behaviours, and poor attachment in ethnic minority adolescent mothers (Huang, Costeines, Ayala, & Kaufman, 2014; Huang, Humenay Roberts, Costeines, & Kaufman, 2019).

Parenting stress has additionally been linked to child problem behaviours (Chung et al., 2012) including internalizing (e.g., anxiety, depression) and externalizing (e.g., aggression) behaviour problems (Puff & Renk, 2014; Siantz, Coronado, & Dovydaitis, 2010), parent ratings of child problem behaviours (Vallotton, Harewood, Froyen, Brophy-Herb, & Ayoub, 2016), and other concerns such as child sleep duration (Kang, Gans, Minkel, & Markham Risica, 2020). In young children, negative economic events for a family and parenting stress can predict internalizing problems, while general life stress and parenting stress can predict externalizing problems (Puff & Renk, 2014). Maternal stress among migrant families has been found to be related to externalizing problems for girls, and other emotional and behavioural problems for children (Siantz et al., 2010). Overall, this research describes the negative impact of both contextual-environmental and internal stressors on child problem behaviours and family mental health.

Despite this well-established research, few studies include the role of father’s experiences of stress on child behaviours for children in middle childhood. Some research has found connections between fathers’ parenting stress with child internalizing and externalizing problem behaviours with toddlers in unmarried families (Lee, Pace, Lee, & Knauer, 2018). However, more research is needed to better understand the relationship between immigrant fathers’ parenting stress and child problem behaviours in older children. A stronger recognition of the role of acculturation level within Latinx families and their parenting stress may help to increase understanding of children’s behaviour, that in turn will better inform prevention and intervention efforts.

4 |. PRESENT STUDY

Considering the lack of research on newly immigrated Latinx families and associations of fathers’ stressors on their children, the current study sought to investigate the complex relationships between acculturation levels, parenting stress, and childrens’ problem behaviours in middle childhood. In the present study, the following research questions were examined: (1) Is there an association between maternal and paternal acculturation, parenting stress, and children’s problem behaviours in a sample of recently immigrated Latinx families? (2) Do maternal and paternal acculturation levels predict child problem behaviours? (3) Do maternal and paternal parenting stress levels predict child problem behaviours? We hypothesized that among these newly immigrant mothers and fathers, higher levels of acculturation and parenting stress would be associated with, and predict, greater child internalizing and externalizing behaviour problems. Supporting families that are experiencing this transition and promoting increased awareness of the unique stressors these families confront is essential to understanding and working with Latinx families.

5 |. METHOD

5.1 |. Participants

This study consists of a secondary data analysis of the first wave of data from IRB approved Latino Immigrant Families dataset (n = 129; Donovick, 2010). Participants were recruited from a western state and included Spanish-speaking Latinx parents with a child between the ages of four to nine. Participants included mothers (n = 85) and fathers (n = 44) primarily from Mexico as well as other Central and South American countries currently living in the United States. Each parent in the study individually participated and represented a separate family; none of the parents were married or participating jointly. Overall, 95% of parents were first generation immigrants. The average age of parents was 34.15 years (SD = 6.42), children were an average of 7.06 years (SD = 1.52), and 95.4% of parents were biological parents. On average, 60% (n = 75) of parents worked full time and 28.8% (n = 36) of parents were stay at home parents. Annual household income for families was $15,000–$20,000 on average. The average education level of parents was seventh–eighth grade, and the majority of parents (76.7%) were educated in Mexico. Children in the study were 54.2% male (n = 71). Most children (76%) were born in the United States, 20.9% were born in Mexico, and 3.1% were born in other Central American countries. See Table 1 for more information.

TABLE 1.

Demographic information for mothers, fathers, and children (N = 129)

Mothers Fathers Children
Characteristic % or M (SD) Characteristic % or M (SD) Characteristic % or M (SD)
Age (years) 33.21 (6.08) Age (years) 35.89 (6.71) Age (years) 7.06 (1.52)
Biological parent 96.4 Biological parent 91.3 Male 54.2
From United States 4 From United States 5 From United States 76
From Mexico 81 From Mexico 82 From Mexico 20.9
From El Salvador 5 From El Salvador 7 From Central America 3.1
From Guatemala 5 From Guatemala 0
From Argentina, Ecuador, Perú, Honduras, Chile 5 From Argentina, Ecuador, Perú 6
Working full time 41.7 Working full time 87.0
Stay at home parent 42.9 Stay at home parent 0
Average annual household income $15,000–$20,000 Average annual household income $20,000–$25,000
Eighth grade or under 61.9 Eighth grade or under 60.9
Some or all of high school 17.9 Some or all of high school 15.2
Educated in Mexico 69.0 Educated in Mexico 73.9
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No major differences were observed between mothers and fathers related to demographic variables. Parents were similar in their relationship to their child, country of origin, annual income, education levels, and education location. Primary differences included that almost half (42.9%) of mothers were stay-at-home parents, while no fathers endorsed being stay-at-home parents, and fathers’ income was an average of $5,000–$10,000 higher than mothers.

5.2 |. Procedure

Participants were recruited through community announcements at churches and other community networks, as well as through the local Spanish language radio station. Participants were invited to participate in the research if they met the inclusion criteria for the study, which included being a Spanish-speaking parent of a child between the ages of four to nine years old. Culturally responsive approaches to research included providing childcare and transportation when needed. Confidentiality of immigration status was retained, and research assessment times were based around families’ availability.

Upon arrival to the research assessment, bilingual and bicultural research assistants (RAs) greeted parents and supported them in completing study documents when necessary. All measures were offered in English or Spanish. Participants were asked what language they preferred for the consent and measures, and whether they wanted to complete the measures on their own or have an RA read the measures to them. Both verbal and written consent was used. When participants requested to be consented verbally, RA’s would ask participants questions related to the study to ensure comprehension and elicited participant questions. Once questions were answered, participants would sign the consent form. Once parental consent was obtained, parents completed self-report measures of parenting stress, levels of acculturation, and child behaviours, and participated in a parent–child interaction. Most participants preferred that the RAs read the measures, and all self-report questionnaires were completed in Spanish. When reading measure instructions, RAs asked participants if they understood the instructions, and encouraged participants to ask questions. RAs also checked in periodically with participants to inquire about any questions or concerns that may have arisen as they were completing the measures. Verbal responses and clarification were provided to participant questions as needed. The length of assessments was 1.5 hr on average, and participants were offered a break with light snacks. At the conclusion of the study parents were compensated for their time and the children received a small gift for their participation.

5.3 |. Measures

Acculturation Rating Scale for Mexican Americans-II (ARSMA-II; Cuellar, Arnold, & Maldonado, 1995) is a 30-item, 5-point, Likert-type measure with responses from “1 = Not at All” to 5 = “Extremely Often or Almost Always” and is used to assess the acculturation levels of Latinx parents through two subscales, including the Anglo Orientation Subscale (AOS) and the Mexican Orientation Subscale (MOS). Example items included “I enjoy listening to Spanish language music”, and “I enjoy English language movies.” Although the measure uses the term Mexican Americans, it can be used with individuals from Central American countries (Cuellar et al., 1995). Participants that were not Mexican were instructed to complete the ARSMA-II considering their own nationality (e.g., Guatemalan). The ARSMA-II incorporates a multidimensional framework to assess acculturation by integrating two independent subscales of AOS and MOS (Cuéllar et al.,1995). The MOS mean is subtracted from the AOS mean to identify a linear acculturation score that places an individual along this continuum: Very Mexican oriented, Mexican bicultural, slight Anglo bicultural, strongly Anglo oriented, Very assimilated. The ARSMA-II demonstrated high levels of reliability, with the AOS and MOS subscales demonstrating coefficient alphas of .83 and .88, respectively. This measure correlates .61 with acculturation and generational status (Cuellar et al., 1995).

Parenting Stress Index – Short Form (PSI-SF; Abidin, 1995) is a 36-item measure designed to gauge parent stress levels based on a 5-point, Likert-type scale ranging from “1= strongly disagree” to “5 = strongly agree” and has three subscales including Parental Distress, Difficult Child, and Parent–Child Dysfunctional Interaction (Mahoney et al., 2014). The total PSI-SF score was used for this study, and indicates the respondent’s overall level of parenting stress. The 85th percentile of stress is considered borderline clinically significant and is an indication of need for intervention (Barroso, Hungerford, Garcia, Graziano, & Bagner, 2016; Zaidman-Zait et al., 2011). Example items included “I often have the feeling that I cannot handle things very well”, and “I feel trapped by my responsibilities as a parent.” The PSI-SF in Spanish reports strong internal consistency at 0.91 (Díaz-Herrero, Brito de La Nuez, López Pina, Pérez-López, & Martínez-Fuentes, 2010). This measure has been found to be effective when using it with Black and Latinx caregivers of children with behavioural difficulties (Lee, Gopalan, & Harrington, 2016) as well as Spanish-speaking populations, low-income families, and mothers with young children (Barroso et al., 2016).

Child Behaviour Checklist (CBCL; Achenbach & Rescorla, 2000) was used to examine child behaviour problems. This measure provides two subscales, including internalizing and externalizing behaviours, as well as generates a total problem behaviour score. Based on the CBCL manual, T scores above 67 indicate clinically significant child behaviour problems (Achenbach & Rescorla, 2000). Example items included “My child has trouble getting to sleep” and “My child looks unhappy without good reason.” This measure has been found to be valid and reliable when used with Mexican populations, with internal consistency scores of α = 0.95 for total problems, α = 0.89 for internalizing problems, and α = 0.91 for externalizing problems (Albores-Gallo, Hernández-Guzmán, Hasfura-Buenaga, & Navarro-Luna, 2016).

6 |. RESULTS

Initial frequency analyses indicated that, in regards to acculturation levels, 81% of mothers (n = 69) and 83% (n = 36) of fathers identified themselves as “Very Mexican,” 11% of mothers (n = 9) and 13% of fathers (n = 5) identified themselves as “Mexican bicultural,” 7% of mothers and 3% of fathers selected “Slight Anglo bicultural”, 1% of both mothers and fathers selected “Strongly Anglo” and 0% self-identified as “Very assimilated.” Again, levels of acculturation included individuals from other countries, and “Very Mexican” accounted for those individuals (“Very Mexican” included “Very Guatemalan”, “Very Chilean” etc.). Results demonstrated that parent stress levels were high (M = 81.67), although they did not fall in the clinically significant range for stress. For child problem behaviours, this sample had a mean of 56.90 for total problem behaviours, including a mean of 56.61 for internalizing behaviours and 56.71 for externalizing problems. These scores indicated that on average children had high levels of problem behaviours, but did not fall in the clinically significant range for behavioural problems.

6.1 |. Correlations with child behaviour problems

To examine the first research question addressing whether there was an association between acculturation, parenting stress, and child problem behaviours, correlation analyses were conducted. Relationships between study variables were analysed with parents collectively as well as mothers and fathers separately. The first analysis focused on correlations related to children’s internalizing behaviours. Parent levels of acculturation were neither significantly correlated with child internalizing problems, nor with total parenting stress scores for either mothers or fathers. Total parenting stress was significantly positively correlated with children’s internalizing problems (r = .29, p < .01), indicating that overall higher levels of parenting stress were related to higher levels of children’s internalizing problems. When investigating these relationships separately, a positive correlation was found with mothers’ parenting stress (r = .34, p < .01), but no significant correlation was found between fathers’ parenting stress and children’s internalizing behaviour problems.

The second analysis focused on correlations related to children’s externalizing behaviour problems. Again, parent levels of acculturation were not significantly correlated with parenting stress for either mothers or fathers, or child behaviour problems. Parenting stress for all parents was significantly positively correlated with child externalizing behaviour problems (r = .48, p < .001). For mothers, once again the correlation was positive and significant (r = .52, p < .001). In this analysis, there was also a significant positive correlation between fathers’ parenting stress and externalizing problem behaviours (r = .39, p < .01).

6.2 |. Parent acculturation and parenting stress predicting child problem behaviours

Multiple regressions were conducted to determine whether acculturation levels and parenting stress accounted for variance in child internalizing and externalizing behaviour problems after accounting for family demographic characteristics. Regressions were initially conducted including all parents and follow up regressions analysed the relationships for mothers and fathers separately. Regressions for the second research question included parent age, education, income, work status, birthplace, and child age and birthplace in block one, parenting stress in block two, and acculturation level in block three. Results indicated that parent acculturation levels were not significant in predicting either child internalizing (Table 2) or externalizing (Table 3) behaviour problems. Follow-up regression analyses revealed that when investigating parents separately, neither mothers’ nor fathers’ acculturation levels predicted child behaviour problems.

TABLE 2.

Summary of regression analyses for variables predicting child internalizing behaviour problems (N = 126)

Total Mothers Fathers
Variable B SE B β B SE B β B SE B β
PSI total stress .13 .04 .29*** .14 .05 .32** .11 .07 .24
ARSMA AOS −.03 .09 −.03 −.04 .11 −.04 −.07 .17 −.07
ARSMA MOS −.04 .11 −.04 −.12 .13 .10 .16 .21 .12
R 2 .09 .12 .06
F 3.94** 3.58* .88
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Abbreviations: AOS, Anglo Orientation Subscale; ARSMA, Acculturation Rating Scale for Mexican Americans; MOS, Mexican Orientation Subscale; PSI, Parenting Stress Index.

Note: N = 126.

*

p < .05,

**

p ≤ .01,

***

p ≤ .001.

TABLE 3.

Summary of regression analyses for variables predicting child externalizing behaviour problems (N = 126)

Total Mothers Fathers
Variable B SE B β B SE B β B SE B β
PSI total stress .19 .03 .48*** .21 .04 .52*** .15 .06 .39*
ARSMA AOS .07 .07 .07 .05 .09 .05 .09 .12 .11
ARSMA MOS −.02 .09 −.02 −.01 .11 −.01 −.01 .16 −.01
R 2 .23 .27 .16
F 12.44*** 9.59*** 2.62
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Abbreviations: AOS, Anglo Orientation Subscale; ARSMA, Acculturation Rating Scale for Mexican Americans; MOS, Mexican Orientation Subscale; PSI, Parenting Stress Index.

Note: N = 126.

*

p < .05,

**

p < .01,

***

p < .001.

For the third research question, parent age, education, income, work status, birthplace, and child age and birthplace were entered into block one, parent acculturation level was entered into block two, and parenting stress was entered into block three. Results indicated that parenting stress was significant in predicting child internalizing behaviour problems (Table 2) and accounted for 9% of the variance (F(1, 124) = 11.75, p = .001, R2 = .09). When analysed separately, mothers’ total stress scores significantly predicted child internalizing behaviours and accounted for 12% of the variance (F(3, 78) = 3.58, p = .02, R2 = .12). Fathers’ parenting stress alone did not significantly predict children’s internalizing behaviours (see Table 2). Regarding child externalizing behaviours, parenting stress for all parents significantly predicted child externalizing behaviour (Table 3), and accounted for 23% of the variance (F(1, 124) = 36.73, p = .000, R2 = .23). Specifically, maternal stress scores significantly predicted child externalizing behaviours and accounted for 27% of the variance (F(3, 78) = 9.59, p = .000, R2 = .27), while fathers’ stress scores did not significantly predict child externalizing behaviours (Table 3).

7 |. DISCUSSION

The purpose of this study was to understand the relationship between acculturation levels, parenting stress, and children’s behaviour problems in a sample of recently immigrated Latinx mothers and fathers and their children in middle childhood. To date, limited research has investigated these relationships among a newly immigrated sample of Latinx families, particularly with fathers. Frequency analyses indicated that parents primarily identified as having a high Mexican (Guatemalan, etc.) orientation, and were overall less acculturated to U.S. American culture. Parenting stress levels and child problem behaviours (both internalizing and externalizing) were high, but did not reach the cutoff for clinically significant behaviour problems. As these families had recently experienced a significant life transition of immigrating to the United States, these results were not surprising. High orientation to their culture, as well as high levels of stress and problem behaviours could be related to a variety of stressors these families may have experienced in the immigration and transition process (Leidy et al., 2012; Williams et al., 2017).

7.1 |. Correlations between acculturation level, parenting stress, and child problem behaviours

Correlation analyses demonstrated no significant relationship between acculturation level and parenting stress or child problem behaviours. These results were surprising given the clear connections between immigration and parent and family stressors (Hovey & Comas-Díaz, 2000; Mendoza, Dmitrieva, Perreira, Hurwich-Reiss, & Enos Watamura, 2017; Torres, 2010). It is possible that the lack of variability in acculturation level (e.g., primarily high Mexican orientation) and/or the nonclinical level of parenting stress and behaviour problems, in conjunction with the small sample size, limited the power to detect associations of smaller magnitude. However, research has also demonstrated that stressors related to acculturation can be reduced when parents have strong connections with, and support from, a network of family and friends (Gassman-Pines & Skinner, 2018; Huang et al., 2019; Williams et al., 2017). While social supports were not measured in this study, it is possible that these families live within an immigrant community or experience social supports that reduce the impact of acculturation stressors on parenting stress. The finding that acculturation levels were not associated with child problem behaviours was also inconsistent with previous research (Mendoza et al., 2017). However, studies have found that children’s behaviour problems are higher in families whose parents reported higher levels of immigration-related stress and economic hardship. Again, while social supports were not measured in this study, if parents were experiencing stronger social supports in their community this may explain lower levels of stress and problem behaviours.

Analyses demonstrated that parenting stress levels for mothers and fathers combined were positively correlated with both child internalizing and externalizing behaviour problems. This was consistent with our hypothesis and with previous literature (Vallotton et al., 2016). When analysed separately, mothers’ parenting stress was positively correlated with both child internalizing and externalizing behaviours, and therefore when mothers had high stress their children had more problem behaviours. Father’s stress levels were positively correlated with child externalizing behaviours only, indicating that when fathers’ stress levels were high, they reported more externalizing behaviour problems in their children. The finding that higher levels of maternal stress was connected to both forms of child problem behaviours is consistent with our hypothesis and supported by the past literature with younger children (Puff & Renk, 2014; Vallotton et al., 2016). The finding that higher stress level of fathers was correlated with increased externalizing behaviours but not internalizing behaviours in children was partially consistent with our hypothesis. Previous literature has found discrepancies in parenting stress experiences between Latinx fathers and mothers (Baker, Perilla, & Norris, 2001), and that parenting stress among fathers has been associated with child internalizing and externalizing behaviours for unmarried or cohabitating fathers, but not for married fathers (Lee et al., 2018). The connection between child externalizing behaviours and fathers’ parenting stress was notable. As these parents recently immigrated, they may practice more traditional parenting roles in which one parent (typically the mother) spends more time with the children and therefore may be more attuned to particular behaviours. As externalizing behaviours are more overt and can be challenging and intense (Merrell, 2001), it is possible that fathers noticed and experienced more distress about these behaviours than their children’s internalizing behaviours which may not be readily apparent. Indeed, higher stress levels in parents has been associated with higher ratings of their own child problem behaviours (Vallotton et al., 2016). While causal claims cannot be made, this association was notable, particularly given that there were fewer fathers in the study than mothers and therefore lower power to detect significant relationships.

7.2 |. Regressions of acculturation and child problem behaviours

Regression analyses demonstrated that acculturation did not significantly predict child problem behaviours after accounting for family contextual variables and parenting stress. This result was consistent for all parents together, as well as for mothers’ and fathers’ separately. This finding did not support our hypothesis that parent levels of acculturation would predict child problem behaviours. One explanation for this finding may be the low variability in the sample regarding acculturation, as families primarily endorsed a high Mexican orientation. The restricted range of responses may have reduced the ability to detect differences in child problem behaviours. Additionally, previous research has found that lower levels of acculturation into mainstream culture may serve as a protective factor for families (Bostean & Gillespie, 2018; Hurwich-Reiss & Watamura, 2019). In fact, lower acculturation levels have been linked to the retention of traditional family values such as familismo, which provides closeness and support between family members (Calzada, Tamis-Lemonda, & Yoshikawa, 2013; Hurwich-Reiss & Watamura, 2019). It is possible that low levels of acculturation served as a protective factor for families in this sample, and therefore was not predictive of child problem behaviours.

7.3 |. Regressions of parenting stress and child problem behaviours

Regression results demonstrated that parenting stress levels for all parents significantly predicted both child internalizing and externalizing behaviour problems. When investigating mothers and fathers separately, regression analyses indicated that maternal parenting stress significantly predicted both child internalizing and externalizing behaviours, while fathers stress levels were not significant in predicting any child problem behaviours. These findings were therefore partially consistent with our hypothesis and previous literature linking parenting stress and child behaviour problems (Puff & Renk, 2014). Links have been found between parenting stress levels and child problem behaviours for Latinx mothers (Siantz et al., 2010), and therefore this result is consistent with the study hypothesis.

The lack of paternal parenting stress predicting child problem behaviours is consistent with some previous literature (Lee et al., 2018), and may be related to various factors for this sample. For one, if fathers in this study were engaging in more traditional parenting practices, they may have fewer interactions with their children, and their stress levels may therefore be less likely to predict problem behaviours in their children. Second, there were fewer fathers than mothers in this study which may have led to less statistical ability to view this relationship. Finally, while father’s stress did not predict problem behaviours, it is possible that child problem behaviours could have predicted fathers parenting stress. This may also have explained the positive correlation between child externalizing behaviours and paternal stress levels.

7.4 |. Implications

Examining how the internalizing and externalizing behavioural problems with Latinx children affect the relationship with their parents within a newly immigrant family dynamic can improve our understanding of Latinx family well-being. Thus, the results of this study have multiple implications for clinical practice and research. For one, Latinx parents may benefit from culturally based and adapted parenting interventions that integrate strategies for supporting newly immigrant parents with young children (Barker, Cook, & Borrego, 2010; Parra Cardona et al., 2012; Parra-Cardona, 2019). Considering the significant growth of the immigrant population within the United States (Pew Research Center, 2021) it is essential that interventionists are aware of the political, social, and economic challenges faced by immigrant families and provide support for these unique challenges. Additionally, parenting intervention programs could include assessments of acculturation levels of parents in order to provide more targeted supports (Barker et al., 2010). Finally, psychological services and intervention programs with Latinx immigrant parents should include parenting stress reduction techniques that are applicable and appropriate for immigrant families. The results of this study clearly indicate a relationship between parenting stress and child internalizing and externalizing behaviours. The variables that contribute to parenting stress for immigrant families merit individualized attention in parenting programs and providing this support may help to reduce parent stress levels and child problem behaviours.

7.5 |. Limitations

The results of this study should be viewed with several limitations in mind. First, this study was correlational and cross-sectional, and therefore conclusions cannot be made about causation. Second, the study has a small sample from one location, which could limit the generalizability of findings. Third, participants were primarily Mexican and therefore the findings may not generalize to other Latinx populations. Conducting the study with a greater sample size and a more diverse cultural and geographical sample would increase the reliability of the results and generalizability to other populations. Finally, the sample included participants with very similar levels of acculturation, primarily a “Very Mexican” orientation. Our results found no correlation between acculturation and our other variables of parenting stress and child behaviour problems, which may be due to lack of variability within the sample. Therefore, more variability among the levels of acculturation among participants may reveal more concrete information about the intersection of study variables.

7.6 |. Future directions

Our findings suggest that future research could focus on: (1) further examining parenting stress that is specifically focused on areas of parenting within the context of immigration; (2) exploring how children’s internalizing and/or externalizing behaviour may affect their relationship with their parents; and (3) exploring more specifically the role of fathers’ mental health and the impact this has on their children. Overall, this study found that maternal parenting stress was linked to, and predicted, child internalizing and externalizing problem behaviours, and that paternal parenting stress was linked to child externalizing problem behaviours, for a sample of newly immigrated Latinx families. These findings add to our current understanding of the contextual factors that impact the mental health and well-being of immigrant families with children in middle childhood. Results of this study are relevant for guiding future research and interventions targeted at supporting these underserved communities.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

This manuscript was supported by the KO1 award (#MH66297-05) (PI M. Domenech Rodríguez) and IRB approved. Research data are not shared.

Funding information

National Institutes of Health; KO1 award, Grant/Award Number: #MH66297-05

Footnotes

CONFLICT OF INTEREST

The authors do not have conflicts of interest to report.

DATA AVAILABILITY STATEMENT

Data sharing is not applicable to this article as no new data were created or analyzed in this study.

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Data Availability Statement

Data sharing is not applicable to this article as no new data were created or analyzed in this study.

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