Composition, medicinal values, and threats of plants used in indigenous medicine in Jawi District, Ethiopia: implications for conservation and sustainable use

Abstract

Indigenous knowledge of medicinal plants is vital to local communities and cultural heritage, particularly in Ethiopia. This study aims to document native medicinal plants in the Jawi district, including associated traditional knowledge. The study involved conducting semi-structured interviews, focus group discussions, and guided field walks with a purposefully selected 54 traditional healers. The study identified 87 medicinal plant species from 50 families used treat over 50 ailments, with a preference for wild herbs. Fabaceae, Malvaceae, and Solanaceae were the most prominent families, each with five species; Zehneria scabra, was the most often mentioned species, followed by Lepidium sativum, Myrica salicifolia, Carissa spinarum, and Momordica foetida. 43% of identified species were herbs, with 44% of remedies made from roots. Pounding was the most common preparation method, and oral application was the most frequent use, followed by dermal application. 60% plants treated human ailments, 16% treated livestock, and 24% were used for both. Preference rankings indicated specific plants favored for certain ailments. The study highlights key plant families and species crucial for local healthcare but notes threats like habitat destruction and knowledge loss. Urgent conservation actions are needed to preserve medicinal plants and inform future research and strategies.

Introduction

Indigenous communities across the globe possess a unique understanding of plant resources, upon which they rely for a variety of purposes, including food, medicine, ecosystem services, and other products derived from plant biodiversity^1–4. Traditional, plant-based medicines represent a critical component of cultural systems worldwide, serving as primary healthcare for both urban and rural communities^2,5. Roughly 50,000 plant species are or have been used medicinally in diverse human cultures, while approximately 70% of the global population still relies on traditional medical systems for healthcare⁶. Medicinal plants have always played a significant role in global health⁶. Furthermore, medicinal plants serve as an economic commodity for some who make their livelihoods through the collection, processing, and/or trade, or use of plants as traditional medical practitioners^7,8.

In Africa, up to 80% of the population uses traditional herbal medicines for primary health care⁶. Ethiopia has a rich tradition of traditional medicine, and the country boasts a wealth of indigenous knowledge about medicinal plants^5,9. Both humans (about 80% of the population) and livestock (about 90%) rely on traditional medicine as a primary source of healthcare in the country^9–11. With a diverse flora, Ethiopia is home to over 7000 identified medicinal plant species that local communities have used for centuries to treat various ailments^12,13. The indigenous knowledge of these plants is often passed down through generations and is an essential part of the country's cultural heritage^14,15. The use of medicinal plants is deeply rooted in Ethiopian culture and continues to be the first line of defense against illness^16,17. Moreover, studies on medicinal plants conducted by Refs.^18–20 indicate that traditional societies in Ethiopia possess exceptional plant use and management knowledge, which contribute significantly to conservation activities in the country. Medicinal plants are not only used in traditional medicine; many modern medicines have been derived from them^5,6,21. Furthermore, plants used in traditional medicine are also used in the preparation of food and beverages, making them an indispensable component of the local diet^22,23.

The indigenous knowledge and utilization of medicinal plants in Ethiopia have been gradually eroding over time due to various natural and human-made factors^5,24. Some medicinal plant species are endangered due to overharvesting for marketing, leading to their depletion and eventual local extinction^25,26. Moreover, the traditional use methods and knowledge of medicinal flora are diminishing as healers, shamans, and tribal elders grow older and die, and their knowledge goes uncollected^3,9,13. Despite the potential for traditional medicine practitioners to participate in drug discovery and healthcare provision, their ancestral knowledge remains underutilized in Ethiopia's development processes, with only a small fraction being traded^27,28. As local communities undergo cultural transformations due to urbanization, traditional values may give way to modern ones, putting the knowledge on plant resource use at risk of vanishing permanently unless documented and conserved^28,29.

In recent years, there has been an increasing interest in studying the medicinal plants of Ethiopia. Previous studies have documented the traditional medicinal uses of plants in different regions of Ethiopia^25,28–30. Additionally, efforts have been made to promote sustainable use and preserve traditional knowledge for future generations^4,10,15. However, there is still a significant knowledge gap about the traditional medicinal plants used, as many regions and traditional communities remain unresearched, which this study aims to address. The study of medicinal plants in Ethiopia is of immense importance, as traditional medicine remains a vital part of the country's healthcare system^5,11,17,31. However, despite the country's rich floral diversity, many plant species remain unidentified³². By studying these plants and analyzing their active compounds, we can identify potential sources of new drugs and treatments, document the indigenous knowledge associated with them, and ensure their safe and effective use³³. Furthermore, as described by Ref.³⁴, ethnobotanical studies also highlight the importance of conserving and protecting biodiversity and promoting sustainable use of natural resources. Therefore, continued research into medicinal plants is essential for preserving the well-being of local communities^25,35.

The Jawi district, located in Northwestern Ethiopia, is a hotspot for biodiversity conservation and home to numerous ethnic groups that rely on traditional medicine as their primary source of healthcare. The region is also known for its rich flora and cultural heritage³¹. Despite being an important area for traditional medicine, there is limited documentation and evaluation of the medicinal plants used by the local communities. Thus, this study aims to identify the indigenous medicinal plants used in Jawi district, document the knowledge associated with these plants, and provide baseline data for future research, sustainable utilization, and conservation efforts.

Methodology

Description of the study area

The study area, Jawi district is situated in the Awi nationality administrative zone of the Amhara regional state in Ethiopia, encompassing an approximate area of 1458 km² (Fig. 1). The district is rural, with a population of around 150,000 individuals engaged in subsistence agriculture, fishing, and small-scale trade³⁶.

Fig. 1.

Map of the study area.

Geographically, Jawi district is characterized by gently rolling hills and valleys, with an elevation ranging from 1200 to 2300 m above sea level, as determined using Garmin GPS. The area experiences a tropical climate, featuring a brief rainy season from June to September, followed by a dry season from October to May. The average annual rainfall measures around 1500 mm, while the temperature ranges from 16 to 37 °C³⁷. The district is characterized by various vegetation types such as savanna grasslands, forests, riverine areas, and bushlands, with the primary agricultural products being sorghum, sesame, and cotton³⁸.

The district is renowned for its rich plant biodiversity, which includes numerous valuable medicinal plant species³⁸. Additionally, it hosts forest reserves that contribute to conservation efforts (authors observation). However, the ecological health of the district faces significant threats due to habitat loss and overexploitation of natural resources. The study area is home to the Amhara, Agaw, and Gumuz ethnic groups. These communities sustain their livelihoods through subsistence agriculture, honey production, animal rearing, hunting, gathering, and various artisanal activities³⁹.

Sampling and data collection methods

A reconnaissance survey was conducted to select appropriate sites with traditional medical practices for the study. Three Kebeles (the primary administrative units within the district) were purposefully selected from the district based on the richness of traditional medicinal knowledge⁴⁰. A total of 54 participants were selected according to Refs.^41,42 guidelines, based on their knowledge and experiences. A snowball sampling technique was also used to identify participants by leveraging the social networks of knowledgeable individuals⁴³. Traditional association leaders, kebele officials, and key participants facilitated and guided the process.

Approval for all field and laboratory protocols was obtained from the Injibara University Research and Community Service Council (Institutional Review Committee), in compliance with international laws such as the Declaration of Helsinki and the ethical clearance guidelines of the Ethiopian Science and Technology Agency^44,45. Before conducting interviews with participants, explicit informed consent was obtained from all participants involved in the study. Comprehensive information regarding the purpose, procedures, potential risks, benefits, and confidentiality measures of the study was provided to the participants. They were allowed to ask questions and clarify any concerns before voluntarily agreeing to participate. The consent process ensured that individuals were fully aware of their rights and had the autonomy to decide whether to be interviewed. The confidentiality of the participants' personal information and responses was rigorously maintained throughout the research process.

Data were collected from February 2021 to December 2021 following the method used by Refs.^42,46. Based on this, semi-structured interviews, guided field walks, and market surveys were conducted. During the guided field walks, interviews with participants were conducted to obtain information on medicinal plants and traditional knowledge of plant species. Field surveys were also performed to collect plant specimens and information on threats, cultural practices, disease treatment, and indigenous knowledge and strategies of conservation. Data on human activities that threaten medicinal plants, altitude, grid reference using GPS, and habitat were also recorded during field surveys and field walks. Focus group discussions were also held with participants to ensure the reliability of the information gathered. After identifying primary threats through field observations, interviews, and FGDs, we have assessed each plant species' conservation status using IUCN data base, which classifies species into threat levels from "Least Concern" to "Critically Endangered," as well as the Ethiopian Red List categories^47,48.

An enumeration of all recorded species, including their habit, botanical and local/vernacular names, family, parts used, and ailment(s) treated, was also recorded. Plant specimens and seeds were gathered with a given voucher specimen number following⁴⁹, from both governmental forest areas and private landowners, with permission granted by the Awi Administrative Zone Agricultural Office and the respective landowners. The Flora of Ethiopia and Eritrea, Volumes 2–7^50–56, NDA (Natural Database Africa), and the useful trees and shrubs of Ethiopia⁵⁷ were used to identify the plant species. Identification of all plant species specimens was conducted by the first and third authors using taxonomic references. The full scientific names, families, and growth forms were recorded following⁴¹. Voucher specimens underwent collection, processing, and preservation at the Injibara University Herbarium.

Data analysis

The descriptive and inferential statistics were done to analyze the ethnobotanical data using Microsoft Office Excel spreadsheets and SPSS version 25 software. Frequencies and percentages were used to analyze the ethnobotanical data obtained from interviews about reported medicinal plants and associated knowledge. Spearman rank correlation analysis was employed to examine the correlation between participants age and the number of medicinal plants mentioned. Jaccard’s coefficient of similarity (JI) was calculated to assess the compositions and degrees of similarity of medicinal plants from studies conducted in similar or neighboring floristic regions and agro-ecological zones following⁵⁸. Jaccard’s coefficient of similarity (JI) was computed based on the following formula⁵⁹.

$$\text{JI}=\text{c}/\left(\text{a}+\text{b}-\text{c}\right)$$ 1

where: a is the total species in the study area; b is the total species in the reference area and c is the number of common species between the study area and the reference.

Informant Consensus Factor (ICF) was employed to assess the level of agreement among informants regarding the reported remedies for various disease categories following⁴¹. The ICF value is used to evaluate the level of agreement between information provided by various informants’ informants⁶⁰. The ICF was calculated as

$$ICF=\frac{N_{\mathit{ur}}Nt}{N_{\mathit{ur}}-1}$$ 2

where N_ur is the number of use reports from informants for a particular plant-usage category and Nt are the number of species that were used for the plant-usage category.

Preference rankings were used following⁴¹, as described by Ref.⁴² to evaluate the effectiveness of medicinal plants against specific human ailments. To assess the effectiveness of certain medicinal plants against specific human ailments, a random selection of 15 healers was asked about a medicinal plant's ability to treat a disease, and preference ranking and paired comparison were computed based on their responses. An overall rank for the species was then given by adding up these values for all participants.

Results and discussions

Demography of participants

In this study, a total of 54 participants were interviewed. Results reveal that the majority of participants (50%) were 36–50 years old, followed by the 51–65 (23%) age group (Fig. 2). When examining the healers' educational background, a significant percentage (41%) had no formal education, whereas males (87%) constituted the majority of participants (Fig. 2). The age of participants was found to have a highly significant positive correlation (Spearman's rank correlation, p < 0.01) with the number of species reported. The observation indicates that many healers are illiterate, raising questions about the perception of traditional ethnobotanical knowledge. It is possible that negative attitudes towards traditional healing practices, influenced by educators and others favoring modern medicine, contribute to this phenomenon (as the healers confirmed too). Additionally, the selective transmission of knowledge from traditional healers to their family members indicates a deliberate effort to preserve their traditions consistently. This deliberate act of knowledge preservation not only highlights the significance of traditional healing practices within the community but also reflects a commitment to maintaining continuity and resilience in the face of external pressures.

Fig. 2.

Educational status, sex and age distribution of traditional medicinal healers.

Male participants reported a significantly higher transfer of indigenous knowledge about medicinal plants compared to female participants, aligning with previous studies in Ethiopia. Particularly, the study by Ref.⁶¹ indicated that males exhibited a higher knowledge of medicinal plants compared to females, potentially influenced by cultural factors and traditional gender dynamics. Similarly, a study conducted by Ref.⁶² in the Aleta-Chuko district of South Ethiopia confirmed that males had a higher knowledge of medicinal plants than females. As indicated by Ref.⁶³, the gender disparity in the transfer of indigenous knowledge about medicinal plants may stem from historical gender roles, with men traditionally tasked with activities like herbalism and agriculture, granting them more exposure and confidence in sharing such knowledge. The positive correlation between age and the number of species reported is also consistent with previous studies. For instance, a study conducted by Ref.⁶⁴ reported that older participants had a higher knowledge of medicinal plants than younger participants. This often might be attributed to their accumulated experience, exposure to natural environments, and cultural transmission of traditional knowledge. Recognizing and leveraging the expertise of older generations is essential for the conservation and sustainable use of medicinal plant resources.

Medicinal plant species composition

The inhabitants of the area were documented to use a total of at least 87 species of medicinal plants from 50 different families to treat over 50 different ailments (Table 1). These result are consistent with previous ethnobotanical studies conducted in various regions of Ethiopia. In particular, the study by Ref.⁶⁵ found that traditional healers used 83 plant species to treat 50 different ailments, while a study by Ref.⁹ in the Bale zone identified 87 species of medicinal plants used to treat 51 ailments. This high number of medicinal plant species found in the study area indicates a potential diversity of flora and rich indigenous ethnobotanical knowledge in the community. This wealth of medicinal plant species implies a deep connection between the inhabitants and their natural environment, as well as a long-standing tradition of utilizing local resources for healthcare. In fact, the number of medicinal plants found in this study was greater than those reported from other Ethiopian studies, such as those from Refs.^28,62,66,67. This indicates that efforts to conserve and sustainably manage the local flora and traditional knowledge systems are paramount for both cultural preservation and public health initiatives.

Table 1.

Composition of medicinal Plants, Parts used, ailments treated and mode of application.

Scientific name	Family	Local name	Plant parts used	Ailments treated	Mode of preparation and application	Conservation status	Voucher number
Acacia polyacantha Willd	Fabaceae	Girar	Leaves and Bark	Musculoskeletal disease	Dried bark and leaves are grinded, mixed with water and administered orally every morning before meal	NE	AD0012
Acanthus sennii Chiov.*	Acanthaceae	Kusheshilie	Stem	Tomour	Fresh stem latex is squeezed, mixed with water and applied the affected body part for massaging from 3 to 4 days	NT	CH009
Albizia amara (Roxb.) Boiv	Fabaceae	Ambelta	Root	Neurological disease	Dried root part will be crushed, mixed with water and extract will be administered orally	LC	CH0010
Albizia coriaria Welw. ex Oliv	Fabaceae	Sendel	Root and Bark	Evil spirit	Fresh root and bark are boiled together and filtered mixture will be administered orally when cold enough	LC	AD0021
Allium cepa L.	Alliaceae	Qey shinkurt	Bulb	Hypertension	Pound the fresh leaves and administer the macerate orally	NE	AD0022
Allium sativum L.	Alliaceae	Nechi shenkurt	Bulb	Kidney infection	Eat the fresh raw bulb/leaf every morning before a meal	NE	CH0016
Aloe vera (L.) Burm.f	Asphodelaceae	Eret	Leaf	Dermataites	Pounded fresh leaves is boiled with hot water and cream the extract on the affected body part	NE	AD001
Amaranthus graecizans L.	Amaranthaceae	Aluma	Leaf	Gastritis	Pound the fresh leaves and consume orally	LC	AD002
Asparagus africanus Lam	Asparagaceae	Yeset Keset	Root	Erectile disfunction	Pounded fresh root bark is mixed with water and administer orally from 2 to 4 consecutive days by-passing from alcohol consumption	NE	AS007
Boswellia papyrifera (Caill. ex Delile) Hochst.*	Burseraceae	Etan	Bark	Evil spirit	Fresh bark is boiled and the body will be bathed with the exudate	VU	AS008
Brassica carinata A.Braun	Cabombaceae	Gomenzer	Seed	Wound healing	Dried seed is pulverized, mixed with water and administer the extract orally	NE	CH001
Brucea antidysenterica J.F.Mill	Simaroubaceae	Abalo	Root and Bark	Gastritis	Dried stem bark and root part will be pounded, mixed with water and administered orally	LC	CH1007
Capparis tomentosa Lam	Capparidaceae	Gumero	Root and Leaf	Evil eye**	The dried root and leaf are pounded then the powder is put on fire, then sniffed the fumigate	LC	AD0020
Capsicum annuum L.	Solanaceae	Mitemita	Vegetable	Malaria	Dried/fresh fruit vegetable will be pounded and consumed together with Ethiopian cultural food, "Enjera"	LC	AD0013
Cardiospermum corindum L.	Sapindaceaee	Semeg	Root	Eczema	Fresh root part is pounded, mix it with water and administer orally	NE	AD0021
Cardiospermum halicacabum	Sapindaceae	Samag	Fruit	Contraceptive	Consume the fruit	LC	CH002
Carica papaya L.	Caricaceae	Papaya	Fruit, Leaf	Gastritis	Ripen fruits and leaves are boiled with water and consumed the extracts orally every morning before meals	DD	AD0018
Carissam spinarum L.	Apocynaceae	Agam-	Root	Irritable Bowel Syndrome, Evil Eye**, Mastitis	The dried root parts are pounded then the powder is put on fire then, sniffed the fumigate or fresh root will be pounded, mix with water and administer orally	LC	AD0023
Centella asiatica (L.) Urb	Apiaceae	Yeayte joro	Leaf	Goiter	Squeeze the leaf, then drink the liquid with a finger-sized amount of the cup	LC	AD0019
Clematis hirsuta Perr. & Guill	Ranunculaceae	Nechi harge	Root	Rabies	Pound finger-sized roots, mix with milk, and drink before meal	NE	AS0019
Coffea arabica L.*	Rubiaceae	Buna	Flower and Fruit	Headache	Dried and roasted flower and fruit plant part are pounded, boiled with water and administered orally	EN	AS0015
Combretum adenogonium Steud. ex A.Rich	Combretaceae	Weyba	Stem	Malaria	Dried stem is pounded to powder, mix it with tea or coffee and administer orally	LC	CH0026
Commelina imberbis Ehrenb.ex Hassk	Commelinaceae	Weha Ankur	Root	Erectile disfunction	Chew the fresh root or pound it and apply as a smear on male reproductive organ	LC	AD0027
Commicarpus plumbagineus (Cav.) Standl	Nyctaginaceae	Qoqo	Whole part	Asthma	Pound the fresh plant part, mix with water, and take the extract orally	VU	AD0024
Cordia africana Lam	Boraginaceae	Wanza	Root	Headache	Pound the fresh root bark, mix with water, and administer the extract orally	LC	AS0014
Coriandrum sativum L.	Apiaceae	Denbelal	Seed	Postpartum hemorrhage	Grind the seed, put it in 1 L of water, bury it for 24 h, then drink one cup every morning and evening for 7 consecutive days	NE	CH0011
Croton macrostachyus	Euphorbiaceae	Bisana	Root and Bark	Hepatitis	Pound the fresh bark, mix it with water and take the extract orally	LC	CH004
Cucurbita pepo L.	Cucurbitaceae	Duba	Fruit	Ascariasis	Pulverized roasted seed devoid of seed coat is pounded, mixed with water and consumed with Ethiopian cultural food, "Injera"	LC	AD003
Cymbopogon citratus (DC.) Stapf	Poaceae	Tejisar	Root	Febrile illness	Fresh root part is smashed, mixed with water and administer orally	NE	CH0025
Cynoglossum coeruleum Hochst. ex A.DC	Boraginaceae	Shemgegit	Root	Febrile illness	Apply the root latex on the affected body part as a cream	NE	AS0020
Cyphostemma adenocaule (Steud. ex A.Rich.) Desc. ex Wild & R.B.Drumm	Vitaceae	Aserkush	Root	Rabies	Pound the root, mix it with honey, and take for one day before food, then fast for 6 h	NE	AS0010
Datura stramonium L	Solanaceae	Astenager	Leaf and Root	Leishmaniasis	Pound the fresh roots and leaf parts and put on infected body part	NE	AD0025
Delphinium wellbyi Hemsl	Ranunculaceae	Gedel Amuke	Bark	Toothache	Chew the bark with honey, then swallow	NE	AS005
Duranta erecta L..	Verbenaceae	Muatish	Root	Febrile illness	Pound the root, mix with water, bathe with it for seven days, and drink extract	LC	AS006
Echinops kebericho Mesfin*	Asteraceae	Kebricho	Root	Febrile illness	The dried root and leaf are pounded then the powder is put on fire then, sniffed the fumigate; or Boil the powder with coffee and administer orally	NT	CH005
Ekebergia capensis Sparrm	Meliaceae	Lol	Bark	Psychosis	The dried bark is pounded then the powder is put on fire then, sniffed the fumigate	LC	AD004
Eleusine coracana (L.) Gaertn	Poaceae	Dagusa	Seed	Mastitis	Grind the seed then use as feed the animals suffered from Mastitis	LC	AD0028
Erythrina brucei Schweinf	Fabaceae	Korch	Bark	Exo-parasite	Pound the fresh bark and eat it with bread	LC	AS0011
Euphorbia tirucalli L.	Euphorbiaceae	Qenchib	Stem	Psychosis	Mix the latex collected from stem with honey and administer orally every morning	LC	AS009
Euphorbia abyssinica J.F.Gmel.*	Euphorbiaceae	Kulkual	Stem	Rabies, and Psychosis	Extract the latex from the stem, mix the extract with red cow's milk and drink orally	LC	AD006
Ferula communis L.	Apiaceae	Doge	Root	Psychosis, Snakebite envenoming	Dried roots is pounded, mixed with honey and apply as a paste	LC	CH0012
Gardenia ternifolia Schumach. & Thonn	Rubiaceae	Gambello	Root	Snakebite envenoming	Fresh leaf part is boiled with water and drink the extract orally or chew the root and apply the cream on the affected body	LC	AD0029
Grewia ferruginea Hochst. ex A.Rich	Tiliaceae	Alenqoza	Bark	Tapeworm	Fresh bark will be chewed and the extract will be consumed orally	NE	AD007
Hydnora johannis Becc	Hydnoraceae	Dechi merchi	Root	Inflammation	Boil with Niger oil and water, then drink	LC	CH0015
Justicia schimperiana (Hochst. ex Nees) T.Anderson	Acanthaceae	Sensel	Leaf	Hepatitis	Cut the leaf, squeeze after 12 h, mix the liquid with a small amount of water, and apply on the shaved head	NE	AS0021
Kalanchoe petitiana A. Rich	Crassulaceae	Endahula	Leaf	Cough	Squeeze the leaf, mix with liquor and Injera, then eat	NE	AS0025
Lantana trifolia L.	Verbenaceae	Argefegefo	Root	Evil eye**	The dried root is pounded then the powder is put on fire then, sniffed the fumigate	LC	CH0018
Leonotis ocymifolia (Burm.f.) Iwarsson	Lamiaceae	Yeferes Zeng	Leaf	Febrile illness	The dried leaf is pounded then the powder is put on fire then, sniffed the fumigate	LC	CH0019
Lepidium sativum L.	Brassicaceae	Feto	Whole part	Dysentry, Erythroblastosis fetalis, and Warte	Pound the seeds, mix with milk, then drink	LC	AS003
Lycopersicon esculentum Mill.	Solanaceae	Timatim	Fruit	Dermataites, and Artirits	Chop the fruit and drink with tea	LC	AD008
Mangifera indica L.	Anacardiaceae	Mango	Leaf	Dermataites	Pound the leaf, mix with Niger oil seed, butter (without water), and lichen, then apply on the affected body	DD	AS0026
Momordica foetida Schumach	Cucurbitaceae	Yequra harege	Whole part	Hepatitis	Squeeze the leaf, put the liquid on the shaved head	NE	AD0014
Musa acuminata Colla	Musaceae	Muze	Fruit	Eczema	Rub the banana fruit	LC	CH0023
Myrica salicifolia A. Rich	Myrtaceae	Shinet	Bark and Root	Stomach cramps, Erythroblastosis fetalis	Squeeze the leaf and apply the liquid to the shaved head for 3–5 consecutive days	LC	AS0012
Myrtus communis L.	Myrtaceae	Ades	Leaf	Hair Beauty	Rub the fruit of Banana for 7 days	LC	AS004
Ocimum lamiifolium Hochst. ex Benth	Lamiaceae	Dama Kessie	Leaf	Febrile illness	Chewing the bark, then swallow	NE	CH0024
Otostegia integrifolia Benth	Lamiaceae	Tenjut	Leaf and Root	Pneumonia	Grind the dried leaves, then blend with Ximenia americana seed oil, and gently massage onto the hair for 3 consecutive days	NE	AD0026
Pavonia schimperiana Hochst. ex A.Rich	Malvaceaee	Ablalit	Leaf	Inflamation (Breast cancer)	Massage after heating the fresh leaves	LC	CH0027
Pavonia urens Cav.	Malvaceae	Ablalit	Root	Erectile disfunction	Grind the dried root and consume it with Geshoo-free Tela for 5–7 days, avoiding alcohol consumption during this period	VU	AS0013
Plantago lanceolata L.	Plantaginaceae	Etse nahom	Leaf	Dandruf	The dried leaves pounded and mix the powder with butter and apply to the affected body for four days	VU	CH008
Plumbago zeylanica L.	Plumbaginaceae	Amera/Amira	Root	Toothache	The dried root pounded then the powder is put on fire, then sniffed the fumigate	LC	CH0028
Polygala abyssinica R.Br. ex Fresen	Polygalaceae	Este libona	Root	Snakebite envenoming	Tie the root on the affected body and hold in hand	NE	AD0015
Rumex abyssinicus Jacq.	Polygonaceae	Meqemeqo	Root	Dandruf	Grid the dried root, then mix with butter, and apply on the affected body for seven days	NE	AS0016
Ruta chalepensis L.	Rutaceae	Tena Adam	Root and fruit	Cancer	Pound the roots and fruits with garlic and ash, then place the mix on the ulcer	LC	AD0030
Clinopodium abyssinicum (Benth.) Kuntze	Lamiaceae	Boze	Root	Erectile disfunction	Pounding the dried roots with Phytolacca dodecandra root and fruit, and mix the powder with honey by water, then drink the mix for three days	NE	AD0031
Schinus molle L.	Anacardiaceae	Qundo-berbere	Seed	Wound healing	Pounding the dried seed, then smell the powder and drink the liquid through mixing with water when sick	LC	AS0024
Securidaca longepedunculata Fresen	Polygalaceae	Etse menahi	Root	Evil Eye**	The dried root are pounded, then bury it on the left side of the door	LC	CH0022
Sida ternata L.f.	Malvaceae	Yemedir hareg	Leaf and Root	Evil Eye**, Touth pain	The dried root and leaf are pounded then the powder is put on fire, then sniffed the fumigate	LC	AS0023
Sida rhombifolia L.	Malvaceae	Gorgeget	Whole part	Evil Eye**, Touth pain	Pounding the root with garlic and any part of rue, then make daring the patient or smell the patient through the nose with finger size and chew the root, then discard the remnants	LC	AS0022
Silene macrosolen Steud. ex A.Rich	Caryophylacaea	Wogert	Root	Erectile disfunction	Chew the fresh root with Asparagus africanus root before initiating sexual activity	LC	AS0017
Silybum marianum (L.) Gaertn.	Asteraceae	Yeahya Eshohe	Root	Eye diseases	Tie the fresh root to the ear on the side of the affected eye	LC	AD0017
Solanum anguivi Lam.	Solanaceae	Zerchi Emboye	Root	Wound healing	The dried root ponded, then apply the powder on the wound	LC	AD0036
Solanum nigrum L.	Solanaceae	Tequr Awete	Fruit	Fever, and Uvula	Grind the fruit, then mix with water, then wash the body of the patient	NE	AD0033
Steganotaenia araliacea Hochst.	Apiaceae	Yejibe dula	Bark and Root	Abortion, and Bon fracture	Pound the dried bark and root, then eat it with bread	LC	AD009
Tephrosia elata Deflers.	Fabaceae	Yeait-hareg	Root	Pneumonia	Pounding the dried root, then put the powder on fire, then sniffed the fumigate	NE	CH007
Stephania abyssinica (Quart.-Dill. & A.Rich.) Walp.	Menispermaceae	Etse Eyesus	Root, leaf	Fire burn	Pound the dried leaves or root, then apply the powder onto burned skin	LC	CH0021
Stereospermum kunthianum Cham	Bignoniaceae	zana/washinet	Whole part	Snakebite envenoming, Vomiting, Stomachache	Pound the either of the fresh part and drink the extracts	LC	CH0014
Syzygium aromaticum (L.) Merr. & L.M.Perry	Myrtaceae	Qernfud	Fruit	Diarrhea	Consume the fruit with a cup of coffee	LC	CH0020
Tapinanthus globifer (A.Rich.) Tiegh.	Loranthaceae	Teketila	Leaf	Snakebite envenoming	Harvest leaves on Wednesdays and Fridays, bury them briefly, heat them over a fire, and then gently apply the mixture to the affected area seven times	VU	AD0016
Triticum turgidum L.	Poaceae	Aja	Powder	Back pain	Prepare it with some amount of hot water, then eat with bread or porridge	LC	AS0018
Triumfetta pilosa Roth.	Tiliaceae	Shmgegit	Root	Postpartum hemorrhage	Slowly dig up the entire root and apply it onto the vagina	LC	AS002
Verbena officinalis L.	Verbenaceae	Atuch	Root, Leaf	Malaria	Pound the root or leaf, then mix the powder with water or honey, then drink it	LC	AD0010
Vernonia amygdalina Del.	Asteraceae	Girawa	Leaf	Goiter	Simmer with 5 cups of water until it reduces to one cup, then consume every morning for 7 consecutive days	LC	AS001
Viscum triflorum DC	Viscaceae	Golo kokeb	Whole part	Erythroblastosis fetalis	Test either parts for mothers and tie for children	LC	CH0013
Ximenia americana L.	Olacaceae	Enkoy	Root	Erythroblastosis fetalis	Chop the roots, then mix with water and drink it	LC	AD0011
Zehneria scabra (L.f.) Sond.*	Cucurbitaceae	Etse Sabieke	Whole part	Febrile illness, Erythroblastosis fetalis	Dried and pound the parts, then apply the powder affected body part	NE	CH006
Zingiber officinale Roscoe	Zingiberaceae	Zinjebel	Root	Headache	Grind the dried and Fumigate at night, then cover the whole body	DD	AD0034

*Endemic to Ethiopia.

**Evil eye; is a cultural believing and considered as a disease, a person who is thought to have been harmed may display symptoms such as sudden illness, persistent bad luck, emotional distress.

NT near threatened, VU vulnerable, LC least concern, DD data deficient, NE not evaluated.

Among the families, Fabaceae, Malvaceae, and Solanaceae led with 5 species each, followed by Apiaceae and Lamiaceae with 4 species each, while the remaining families were represented by 3 or fewer species. These findings are consistent with those from previous studies in Ethiopia, which also reported the use of medicinal plants from these families^68,69. The diversity of plant families utilized for medicinal purposes in the studied area, highlights the broad spectrum of traditional knowledge about plant-based remedies. The prominence of certain families, such as Fabaceae and Solanaceae, which are known for their medicinal properties globally, underscores the importance of these plants in local healthcare practices^70,71. Additionally, each of these families likely contains species with unique chemical compounds and therapeutic properties, contributing to the overall efficacy and versatility of the local pharmacopeia⁷². However, studies in other regions of Ethiopia have reported different results regarding the most commonly used families. The study by Ref.⁷³ in the North Showa zone found that the family Asteraceae was the most commonly reported family of medicinal plants, followed by Lamiaceae and Fabaceae. This distribution also provides valuable information to prioritize the protection and sustainable management of plant families with high medicinal value for conservation efforts and can help preserve biodiversity. Furthermore, understanding the distribution of medicinal plant species among different families can guide future ethnobotanical research and drug discovery efforts, as it offers insights into which plant families are most promising for further investigation of their medicinal potential.

The most frequently mentioned species were Zehneria scabra (endemic to Ethiopia), followed by Lepidium sativum, Myrica salicifolia, Carissa spinarum, and Momordica foetida. These results are in line with previous studies in Ethiopia, where these species have been reported as frequently used medicinal plants^64,74, which underscores their significance in traditional medicinal practices. This indicates a robust and enduring reliance on these plant species for healthcare needs within Ethiopian communities. The recurrence of these species suggests a deep-rooted cultural knowledge of their medicinal properties and highlights their efficacy in treating a variety of ailments. However, the specific use of these plants varies depending on the region and community. This consistency also implies a degree of ecological and cultural resilience, as these plants continue to be valued and utilized despite changes in environmental conditions and socio-cultural contexts over time. These plant species are highly valued in traditional medicine as they are believed to possess medicinal properties that can help alleviate various ailments. For example, Zehneria scabra is commonly used in traditional medicine to treat ailments associated with fever, such as malaria and dengue fever, as well as Erythroblastosis fetalis, a blood disorder that affects newborns^75–77. Lepidium sativum, on the other hand, is traditionally employed for dysentery, Erythroblastosis fetalis, and warts, while Myrica salicifolia is utilized for stomach cramps, mucus-related issues, and Erythroblastosis fetalis^78–80. Carissa spinarum is another plant species with significant medicinal value, that is traditionally used to manage Irritable Bowel Syndrome and Mastitis. Additionally, Carissa spinarum is believed to have protective effects against the Evil Eye. Momordica foetida is primarily used in traditional medicine to treat Hepatitis, which is a liver disease caused by a viral infection. This plant is believed to contain certain compounds that can help in the management of Hepatitis A, B, or C infections⁸¹.

The analysis of Jaccard's coefficient of similarity (JI) revealed that the study area shared a significant number of medicinal plant species with previously studied areas. It has the highest similarity with 35 common species (24 percent) to Gozamin district²⁰, followed by 33 (22.92%) to Sedie Muja district⁸² (Table 2). The findings suggest that the areas are ecologically and culturally interconnected, as evidenced by the significant overlap in medicinal plant species. This points to a larger regional ecosystem in which plant species distribution crosses administrative boundaries. Furthermore, the high degree of similarity, particularly with specific districts such as Gozamin and Sedie Muja, suggests the possibility of collaborative conservation efforts and knowledge exchange. This not only improves the efficiency of conservation strategies, but it also promotes the long-term viability of medicinal plant resources throughout the landscape.

Table 2.

Jaccard similarity index of the study area for species similarity comparison with other study areas.

No.	Study areas	Total species number (a/b)	Common species (c)	Jaccard’s coefficient Index (JI)	Percentage of similarity (%)	References
1.	Jawi	88	–	–	–	Current study
2.	Ankober	135	28	0.144	14.40	83
3.	Artuma Fursi	80	24	0.167	16.70	84
4.	Gozamin	93	35	0.24	24.00	20
5.	Gubalafto	135	32	0.1675	16.75	30
6.	Habru	134	28	0.1443	14.43	60
7.	Hulet Eju Enese	80	23	0.1586	15.86	11
8.	Mecha	105	31	0.1914	19.14	(Gebeyehu Getaneh and 2014)
9.	Mojana Wadera	56	16	0.125	12.50	73
10.	Sedie Muja	89	33	0.2292	22.92	82

Sources and life forms of medicinal plants

The majority of medicinal plants used by the participants were primarily collected from the wild (75%), the rest were cultivated (18%), and the remaining were both wild and cultivated (7%). Many of the medicinal plants mentioned were not intentionally cultivated for medicinal purposes, but rather for shade, as a live fence, for food, for cash income, and for spices. Traditional practitioners commonly gather plants from natural forests, as they prefer to use wild-crafted herbs in their practice⁸⁵, because they culturally think that the wild species are more efficient in treating ailments than the cultivated and commonly available species⁸⁶. The therapeutic properties of plant species were first recognized in the wild, with cultivated plants and a combination of both following suit⁸⁷. The reliance on wild-collected medicinal plants highlights the importance of natural forests as sources of biodiversity, while also raising concerns about unsustainable harvesting practices. The prevalence of wild-collected medicinal plants in the Jawi district is consistent with previous ethnobotanical studies conducted in Ethiopia. Reference⁸⁸ found that 96% of medicinal plants were wild-collected in the Amhara region, while Ref.⁸⁹ reported that 85.7% were wild-collected in Tigray. The reasons for this preference are influenced by beliefs about potency and availability^64,90. Many traditional systems of medicine believe that wild plants are more potent due to exposure to diverse environmental conditions^91,92, and cultural beliefs favor wild species due to their perceived efficacy⁵, underscoring the need to preserve natural habitats. Also, it is essential to prioritize sustainable practices to safeguard biodiversity and ensure long-term availability. Previous research underscores the significance of preserving natural habitats to conserve medicinal plants. The study by Ref.⁸³ found that 96% of medicinal plants in their study in the Amhara region were wild-collected, and Ref.⁹³ highlighted the negative impact of human activities on medicinal plant availability and called for conservation efforts. To address these challenges, conservation efforts should integrate traditional knowledge, promote sustainable harvesting, and engage local communities to safeguard both biodiversity and cultural heritage.

The result of life form analysis showed that herbs constituted the highest proportion (43%) of the identified species, followed by trees (22%), shrubs (19%), and climbers (9%). These findings are in line with other studies conducted in Ethiopia, among others by Ref.⁹⁴, who found that herbs were the dominant life form for medicinal plants in the study areas. However, studies conducted in different regions of Ethiopia have reported different results. Particularly, the study by Ref.⁹⁵ found that trees were the most used life form for medicinal plants. The predominance of herbs among the identified medicinal plants demonstrates a reliance on readily available plants, and the existence of climbers emphasizes the necessity of vertical habitats. But the rarity of trees and shrubs stresses the importance of comprehensive forest ecosystem conservation to ensure that medicinal plant resources are available for future generations.

Plant parts used and mode of application

The five main medicinal plant parts were identified for all recorded remedy preparations. Certain plants were utilized in several parts, while others were utilized entirely. 44% of traditional plant remedies were prepared from roots, followed by leaves (21%) (Fig. 3). A study conducted by Ref.³⁰ in the North Wollo Zone reported that 135 plant species were used for medicinal purposes, with roots being the most commonly used plant part. Another study conducted by Ref.²⁶ identified 96 plant species used for the treatment of various ailments, with roots being the most commonly used plant part. Similarly, a study conducted by Haile⁷³ reported that roots and leaves were the most commonly used plant parts for preparing remedies. The prevalence of roots as the cornerstone in traditional plant remedies highlights their pivotal role in local medicine, probably owing to their rich concentration of bioactive compounds and perceived therapeutic effectiveness⁹⁶. Additionally, the substantial use of leaves highlights their importance as versatile medicinal resources. Understanding which plant parts are utilized provides a basis for conservation efforts, prioritizing species under harvesting pressures. This emphasizes the need for comprehensive conservation strategies considering sustainable management not only of whole plants but also specific plant organs, ensuring the availability of these valuable resources for future generations.

Fig. 3.

Proportion (%) of medicinal plant parts used to remedy preparation.

The most frequently employed mode of preparation in the study area was pounding, followed by chewing and powdering, of the numerous therapeutic plant parts that dominated the preparation techniques (Table 3). A study conducted by Ref.²⁶ showed that the most frequently employed mode of preparation of remedies was pounding, and chewing, which is similar to the findings of this study. Pounding likely facilitates the extraction of bioactive compounds from plant materials, enhancing their therapeutic efficacy⁹⁶. It emphasizes the significance of these methods in improving plant medicinal properties and suggests avenues for future pharmacological research. In the majority of the therapy recipes, ingredients like sugar, honey, tea, coffee, edible oil, and garlic were employed as additives. As Refs^20,22 indicate, it is a common practice to combine the therapeutic properties of different plant species to create treatment mixtures. Understanding traditional preparation techniques sheds light on indigenous knowledge systems and cultural practices related to medicinal plant use, which aids ethnobotanical comprehension and documentation.

Table 3.

Mode of preparation of medicinal plants.

Mode of preparation	Frequency (%)
Boiling	8
Chewing	17
Chopping	10
Pounding	32
Powdering	13
Fumigating	11
Squeezing	9

The principal mode of application were oral, followed by dermal application (Fig. 4). It is similar to a study conducted by Haile⁷³ reported oral administration was the most common application route. The high prevalence of oral administration suggests a strong reliance on ingesting medicinal substances to address various health concerns⁹⁶. This mode of application may indicate a deep-rooted cultural preference for internal treatments, according to Ref.⁵, it is possibly influenced by beliefs about the efficacy and accessibility of orally administered treatments. Furthermore, as Ref.⁹⁷ point out, oral administration allows for systemic absorption of medicinal compounds, which may result in widespread physiological effects. Conversely, the presence of dermal application indicates a focus on local treatment, suggesting a diverse range of therapeutic uses tailored to specific ailments or conditions. As Ref.⁹⁸ state, understanding the principal modes of application can provide valuable insights into traditional healing practices and cultural beliefs surrounding health and wellness. It may also help to guide the development of effective and culturally appropriate healthcare interventions that reflect local preferences and practices.

Fig. 4.

Mode of application of medicinal plant preparations.

Ailments treated and preference ranking

Of the identified medicinal plant species, 60% were used to cure human ailments, 16% treat livestock ailments, and 24% treat both human and livestock ailments. The significant proportion of plant species used for human ailments underscores the reliance on traditional medicine as a primary healthcare resource, likely influenced by factors such as cultural beliefs, accessibility, and cost-effectiveness. This is consistent with the pattern that was documented in previous studies in Ethiopia. Reference⁹⁹ found that 92% of plant species identified in the Tigray were used to treat human ailments, while Ref.¹⁰⁰ reported that 75% of plant species identified in the Amhara region were used to treat human ailments. Consistent with other studies in Ethiopia and tropical regions, medicinal plants were primarily used to treat human ailments over livestock^100,101. Conversely, the lower percentage dedicated to livestock ailments may reflect a lesser emphasis on veterinary medicine or alternative treatment options for livestock within the community. However, the strong cultural attachment of pastoralists to their environment and limited access to modern healthcare facilities may encourage reliance on medicinal plants to treat human and animal ailments^93,102. The substaintial number of plant species used for both human and livestock ailments demonstrates their dual efficacy and potential for addressing health challenges across species boundaries, emphasizing the holistic approach to healthcare practiced by indigenous communities. Conservation efforts should prioritize the preservation of medicinal plant species that serve multiple purposes, ensuring their availability for both human and veterinary healthcare needs.

In the study area, 48 different disease types were recorded as human and livestock health problems treated by plants in indigenous healthcare in the study area. The recording of such number of different disease types treated by plants further illustrates the rich knowledge and diversity of traditional healing practices, offering insights into the local understanding of health and illness. As Ref.¹⁰³ entail, understanding the breadth of plant usage and the range of diseases treated provides valuable information for both ethnobotanical research and healthcare interventions. By integrating traditional knowledge with modern healthcare practices and conservation strategies, it is possible to promote both human and animal health outcomes while safeguarding medicinal plant diversity for future generations within the study area. Based on the information obtained from the participants, the most widespread human ailments include evil eye, Febrile illness, erectile dysfunction, Snakebite envenoming, stomach cramps, dermatitis, and malaria, suggests a multifaceted health landscape encompassing cultural beliefs, infectious diseases, sexual health challenges, environmental factors, and access to healthcare services. According to Ref.¹⁰⁴, this might be due to their prevalence in the area. Likewise, the most prevalent livestock ailments in the study area were cough and eye diseases.

About 13 disease categories were identified from the study area (Table 4) following Ref.¹¹. Gastro-intestinal and parasitic disease category was the most frequently mentioned category cited by 48 informants with 14 different plant species used. Such prominence of gastro-intestinal and parasitic diseases indicates a high prevalence of these conditions within the community. This highlights the need for targeted healthcare interventions and the potential development of effective treatments based on traditional remedies. The high values for gastro-intestinal and parasitic disease category is also reported elsewhere in the country^60,82–84. The significant variety of plant species used to treat various ailments suggests a rich ethnobotanical knowledge within the community. Preserving this knowledge is crucial for maintaining cultural heritage and can provide valuable insights into potential new treatments for various diseases. Contrary to this, the list mentioned disease category is cancer and swelling with only three participants. Moreover, the number of plant species used varies significantly, with some categories like gastro-intestinal using many species, suggesting diverse traditional knowledge in treating these ailments.

Table 4.

Informant consensus factor (ICF) values of traditional medicinal plants in Jawi district.

No.	Disease category	Disease type	Number of plant species (Nt)	Number of use reports	ICF value
1.	Gastro-intestinal and parasitic	Gastritis, ascariasis, vomiting, diarrhea/dysentery, stomachache/cramps, tapeworm, kidney infection, exo-parasite, leishmaniosis, malaria, irritable bowel syndrome, eye disease	14	48	0.72
2.	Dermatological	Mastitis, inflammation, dermatitis, dandruff, fire burn	8	15	0.43
3.	Respiratory systems	Asthma, cough, pneumonia	4	5	0.25
4.	Musculoskeletal and nervous system	Musculoskeletal disease, back pain, bone fracture	3	4	0.33
5.	Neurological and Psychosis	Psychosis, neurological disease	5	6	0.2
6.	Blood and lymphatic system	Hypertension, postpartum hemorrhage, artirits, erythroblastosis fetalis	8	9	0.13
7.	Cultural	Evil spirit, evil eye	8	20	0.63
8.	Urogenital and venereal	Erectile dysfunction, contraceptive	6	10	0.44
9.	Cancer and swelling	Inflammation (breast cancer), wound healing, tumor	3	6	0.40
10.	Poisoning	Snakebite envenoming	5	14	0.69
11.	Febrile	Febrile illness, fever	9	21	0.60
12.	Viral diseases	Rabies, hepatitis	6	13	0.58
13.	Others	Headache, hair beauty, toothache, abortion, eczema	7	15	0.57

The study makes a unique contribution by providing a preference ranking of medicinal plants for specific health problems and emphasizing the importance of understanding local knowledge and practices in developing effective strategies for conserving medicinal plants. Preference ranking results indicate that Carissa spinarum is a commonly preferred plant species for treating stomach cramps and evil eye, suggesting its widespread recognition for alleviating gastrointestinal discomfort and warding off negative energy. Consistent with previous studies, Carissa spinarum is used for treating the evil eye¹⁸. Polygala abyssinica and Cyphostemma junceum are preferred for treating Snakebite envenoming, and Satureja abyssinica is preferred for treating erectile dysfunction. Similarly, Polygala abyssinica and Cyphostemma junceum are favored for treating snakebite envenoming, underscoring their perceived efficacy in addressing venomous snakebites, a prevalent health concern in the region. Additionally, Satureja abyssinica is preferred for treating erectile dysfunction, indicating its valued role in addressing reproductive health issues within the community. It sheds light on the nuanced selection criteria and therapeutic preferences of local communities. Understanding the preferences of locals can promote the management and sustainable use of medicinal plants, as well as enhance the effectiveness of healthcare interventions^25,105. These preference rankings offer valuable insights into traditional medicinal knowledge and practices, providing a basis for understanding the cultural significance and therapeutic attributes attributed to specific plant species.

Major threats and conservation status of medicinal plants

The major threats to medicinal plants in the study area are firewood and charcoal production, timber production, agricultural expansion, deforestation, destruction of natural habitats, and loss of important indigenous knowledge related to the plants, fueled by population pressure. A study conducted in Hulet Eju Enese Woreda, East Gojjam Zone of Amhara Region, Ethiopia, reported that the factors threatening medicinal plant species in the study area include overharvesting, habitat destruction, and deforestation¹¹. Another study conducted in and around the Dirre Sheikh Hussein heritage site in South-eastern Ethiopia, reported that the primary threats to medicinal plants in Ethiopia were habitat destruction, overharvesting, and deforestation⁹. The result implies that sustainable utilization practices should be promoted to mitigate over-harvesting. Additionally, efforts to safeguard indigenous knowledge related to medicinal plants are crucial for ensuring their sustainable use over time. Community involvement and engagement are key to the success of conservation and sustainable utilization initiatives, as local communities often have valuable traditional knowledge and can play a central role in stewarding natural resources.

The conservation of medicinal plants is a matter of foremost importance due to the country's rich biodiversity and the significant reliance of its population on traditional medicine. As participants confirmed that conservation efforts have not been initiated in the study area, it leads to the local extinction of important plant species, particularly those having medicinal value. So, it is critical to work on the documentation and investigation of the traditional and cultural use of medicinal plants, considered vital for their conservation.

The IUCN conservation status of medicinal plant species identified in the Jawi district offers valuable insights into the biodiversity and potential conservation needs of these plants in the region (Table 1). Based on the Ref.⁴⁷, among the identified species 50 are categorized as "Least Concern", indicating that a significant portion of the medicinal plant diversity in the area is currently not facing immediate threats of extinction according to global standards. However, the presence of 26 species categorized as "Not Evaluated" points to a significant knowledge gap regarding their conservation status. This underscores the necessity for further research and assessment to understand their vulnerability and inform conservation efforts effectively, aligning with international standards and protocols.

The identification of two plant species as "Near Threatened" and five species as "Vulnerable" highlights the specific risk certain medicinal plants in the Jawi district face regarding population decline or extinction on a global scale. This emphasizes the urgency of targeted conservation efforts to mitigate threats and ensure the long-term survival of these valuable medicinal plants, aligning with international conservation priorities. Moreover, the presence of three species classified as "Data Deficient" underscores the challenges in assessing the conservation status of certain medicinal plants due to insufficient data on an international level. This emphasizes the importance of conducting comprehensive surveys, implementing monitoring programs, and initiating research initiatives to gather essential information for conservation planning and decision-making in line with global conservation standards.

Conclusion

The abundance of medicinal plant species in the study area can be attributed to the communities' contribution to natural forest conservation, which provides a habitat for a variety of medicinal plants. Traditional practices are highly valued as a community legacy and may have been supported by the efficacy of herbal medicine and limited access to modern healthcare services.

The current investigation discovered numerous families and plant species that are frequently used by the local communities. These findings underscore the importance of protecting and fostering sustainable use of these priceless plant resources while also adding to the expanding scientifc investigation and utilization of Ethiopian indigenous medicinal plant species knowledge and experiences. Herbs are the most frequently used life form, and it was discovered that the majority of medicinal plants in the Jawi district were harvested from the wild, highlighting the need for conservation and sustainable management. The study provides valuable insights into the local indigenous knowledge and practices associated with medicinal plant use in the study district. Considering demographic factors such as gender and age, as well as preferences for specific health problems, is crucial in efforts to conserve these valuable resources. Therefore, it is recommended that conservation interventions should promote sustainable harvesting practices, establish community-based ex-situ and in-situ conservation, and document and protect traditional knowledge associated with medicinal plant use. This will help preserve the rich diversity of medicinal plants and ensure their availability to future generations.

Author contributions

Yonas Derebe Derso: Organizing the project, data encoding, analysis and write up; Melkamu Kassaye: facilitating data collection process, data feeding and editing, Amare Fasil: data encoding, analysis, write up and editing, Binega Derebe: facilitating data collection, data fedding and interpretation, Amsalu Nigatu: editing and preparing figuers, Fentahun Ayne: data interpretation and editing, Mulugeta Tamir: edition, Patrick Van Damme: edition and reviwing.

Funding

This study was funded by Injibara University (05/019).

Data availability

All data supporting the study's findings on the composition, medicinal values, and threats of plants used in indigenous medicine in Jawi District, including species identification, ethnobotanical details, and qualitative assessments, are comprehensively documented and can be provided in anonymized form upon reasonable request to protect participant confidentiality and ethical standards. For inquiries regarding access to this data, please contact the corresponding author.

Competing interests

The authors declare no competing interests.