Socio‐economic evaluation of human–dog coexistence: A 40,000 years history

Abstract

The human–animal relationship and its benefits have been a popular issue in recent decades. This study focuses on the dog as a paradigmatic example of this complex bond. The relationship between human and dog evolved over thousands of years through the domestication process. During this period, climatic, cultural, geographical and social changes have had a direct impact on this bond. Dogs have a remarkable capacity to play a variety of roles that mirror the evolution of human societies. Subsequently, questions arise regarding the important and symbolic roles that canines played in ancient cultures, religions and mythological traditions. Specifically, how have these roles changed through history? This research aimed to explore the socio‐economic aspects of the human–dog relationship, spanning from ancient civilizations to modern societies. Through a systematic search methodology, this investigation seeks to provide insights into the dynamics of the complex human–dog relationship, including historical backgrounds, socio‐cultural dynamics, economic implications and associated challenges. Additionally, the present study addresses the environmental concerns that emerge alongside rising stray dog populations. This research emphasizes the importance of strategies to balance the benefits of this coexistence that promote human and animal welfare.

This research has explored various dimensions of the human–dog relationship, including historical, cultural, socio‐economic and environmental aspects. It highlights the essential roles of dogs as companions, service animals and symbols across diverse cultures and religions. The developing pet industry's economic significance for dog breeding highlights significant market growth. However, the study raises threats about the global health risk posed by the stray dog epidemic, impacting wildlife and public health. The findings advocate for nuanced strategies to balance the benefits of the human–dog relationship with environmental conservation.

1. INTRODUCTION

Dogs (Canis lupus familiaris) and humans share a special relationship that has evolved over millennia through domestication and coevolution. This relationship has resulted in a remarkable diversity of dog breeds, each intertwined with human history and culture (Varnon‐Hughes, 2015). Throughout history, dogs have adapted to serve numerous roles in human society, from ancient hunting companions to modern service animals. Their adaptability is evident in the various roles they have served, including hunting, herding, protection and companionship (Singh, 2021).

The relationship between humans and dogs is mutually beneficial, a symbiotic bond that has persisted for thousands of years and continues to flourish in modern society (Stokes, 2014). Although dogs’ earliest roles included hunting assistance dating back over 9000 years, their services have expanded to include law enforcement, medical assistance and mobility assistance, among other tasks (Bray et al., 2021; Dollion et al., 2022; Fallahi et al., 2024). These various roles highlight dogs’ significant impact on human life (Menor‐Campos et al., 2023).

In modern society, domestic dogs are increasingly viewed as integral family members, marking a shift from primarily working animals to beloved pets. This evolution highlights the dynamic and enduring nature of the human–dog relationship. However, it is important to note that attitudes towards dog ownership and breeding have varied across societies and historical periods.

Today, there is a growing interest in pet ownership, particularly dogs. The presence of dogs in human societies is significant and cannot be overlooked. Therefore, this study aims to explore the socio‐economic aspects of the human–dog relationship, tracing the evolution of this bond through history.

2. MATERIALS AND METHODS

This study is established based on a systematic search methodology to investigate the socio‐economic aspects of the human–dog relationship in modern society. A comprehensive search of scholarly sources was performed using the Web of Science. The search strategy incorporated keywords such as ‘dog’ (C. lupus familiaris, Canidae) and ‘human’ (people, society), as well as terms like ‘domestication’; ‘myth’; ‘culture’; ‘religion’; ‘service’; ‘regulation’; ‘breeding’; ‘pet marketing’; ‘stray population’ and ‘health risk’. Additionally, relevant sources, including books, reports and authoritative websites, were incorporated into the analysis. The search query identified 59,697 articles (59,638 in Web of Science, 45 websites and 14 organizations). After evaluating the titles and abstracts of all articles, we selected the most related and highly cited articles. Ultimately, a total of 123 articles met the inclusion criteria. Figure 1 presents a flowchart detailing the study selection process.

FIGURE 1.

Flow diagram of the steps followed in the strategy.

3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

3.1. Historical perspective of dog

The evolutionary pathway of dogs is intricately linked with the complex process of animal domestication, a millennia‐old phenomenon that has shaped the multifaceted relationship between humans and animals. Genetic analyses, particularly referencing the canine phylogenetic tree, identify the grey wolf as the closest ancestor to dogs (Freedman & Wayne, 2017; Ostrander et al., 2019). Extensive research into dog and wolf DNA reveals a genetic connection (Figure 2), illustrating that modern dog species trace their lineage back to grey wolves (Seifi Moroudi, 2013). Genetic divergence between the ancestors of dogs and wolves occurred between 20,000 and 40,000 years ago (Thalmann & Perri, 2018).

FIGURE 2.

This diagram depicts the relationship of a dog with other canines based on genetic evidence. As can be seen in the diagram, the closest species to a dog is the grey wolf (Fogle, 2013).

Simultaneously, the concept of animal domestication arises as a transformative and enduring process. Animal domestication is considered a complex and multistage process that alters behaviourally, morphologically and physiologically the domesticates relative to their wild ancestors (Ahmad et al., 2020). Table 1 provides information on the first possible date and location of domestication for several important animal species. This information provides a clear picture of how deep human–animal relationships develop.

TABLE 1.

List of domesticated animals at various eras.

Species	Wild ancestor	Date	Location of origin	Picture	Reference
Canis lupus familiaris	Grey wolf	∼40,0000–10,000 BP	Eurasia		Pendleton et al. (2018)
Felis catus	North African wildcat	∼9000 BP	The near east		Driscoll et al. (2007)
Ovis aries	Unknown ancestor	∼11,000 BP	Fertile Crescent		Zeder (2008)
Capra hircus	Bezoar ibex	∼10,000 BP	Iran		Zeder and Hesse (2000)
Bos taurus	Eurasian aurochs	∼10,000 BP	Fertile Crescent		Pitt et al. (2019)
Gallus gallus	Indian Red Jungle Fowl	∼6000 BC	India and Southeast Asia		West and Zhou (1988)
Camelus dromedarius	Wild dromedary camel	∼3000 BC	Arabian Peninsula		Mburu et al. (2003)
Camelus bactrianus	Wild Bactrian camel	∼6000 BP	Central and Eastern Asian		Chuluunbat et al. (2014)
Bubalus bubalis	Wild water buffalo	∼7000–3000 BP	India, China, Philippines		Minervino et al. (2020)
Equus caballus	Wild horse	∼6000–5000 BP	Eurasia		Zhang et al. (2018)
Equus asinus	African wild ass	∼6000 BP	Eurasian grasslands		Rosenbom et al. (2015)

Abbreviations: BP, before present; BC, before Christ.

3.1.1. Developmental and domestication

Dog domestication began between 10,000 and 40,000 years ago, making it one of the oldest domesticated animals (Pendleton et al., 2018). According to fossil evidence, humans and dogs coexisted thousands of years ago. However, in 2021, a review of available evidence from genetic studies revealed that dogs were domesticated around 23,000 years ago by the ancient inhabitants of northern Siberia (Perri et al., 2021). Archaeological evidence of a 12,000‐year‐old human skeleton with a dog has been discovered in Israel (Figure 3), which may imply that dogs were the first animals to be domesticated by humans (Fogle, 2013).

FIGURE 3.

A 12,000‐year‐old skeleton of a human and a dog (top left) that could be a reason to believe that dogs were the first animals to be domesticated by humans (Fogle, 2013).

In the Middle East, specifically in Iran, there is evidence indicating the ancient domestication of dogs. Iran has a rich history and civilization dating back to 7000 years ago (Moghadasi, 2019). Evidence from excavations indicates that dogs were domesticated around 5500 BC near Khuzestan, Iran (Figure 4) (Hole & Wyllie, 2007). Remains of domestic dogs were also discovered at the ancient site of Haji Firuz in the Azerbaijan province of Iran, which dates back to 5500–5000 BC, according to 14 carbon experiments (Meadow, 1983).

FIGURE 4.

Dog depictions in the late Susa period (ca 4200–3900 BC), represented in the Susa cemetery and deep trench excavations (Hole & Wyllie, 2007).

The domestication and breeding of dogs have been ongoing for thousands of years, with the process likely starting during the Upper Palaeolithic period (Galibert et al., 2011). Humans first began to use certain breeds of dogs for specific purposes, such as hunting, protecting their land with huge dogs (such as bulldogs) and guarding herds with shepherd dogs. These dogs were chosen based on their physical characteristics. Until the 19th century, when the first dog breeding centres were founded in Europe (Larson et al., 2012), these selection processes were carried out without a thorough human understanding of inheritance. The origins of modern dog breeding can be traced back to the mid‐1800s. According to historical records and genomic studies, it is evident that during this period, breeders tended to prioritize form and pedigree over function in their breeding practices (Chen et al., 2021). The 20th century was the century of the flourishing of dog breeding and the emergence of police dogs, which brought humans closer to their needs (Pearson, 2016).

3.1.2. Dogs in myth, culture and religion

Dogs have been revered and symbolized in various cultures throughout history. In Scandinavian, Old Iranian and Celtic cultures, dogs were associated with high status and played important roles in rituals and sacrifices (Alizadeh, 2013; Gräslund, 2004). Dogs have been a prominent figure in classical myths, legends and folk tales, often depicted as faithful and frightening (Xianxing, 2018). In ancient Greek mythology, none is more loyal than Argos, the hunting dog of Odysseus, who waits 20 years to welcome his master home and then dies with the last wagging of his tail (Figure 5). Cerberus, also known as the hound of Hades, is another mythical creature from Greek mythology who guards the gates of the underworld to prevent the dead from leaving (Moosavinia, 2018).

FIGURE 5.

Odysseus and his dog ‘Argos’ (How Dogs Play, 2022).

In the culture of ancient Egypt, dogs had a sacred status that was related with Anubis (the jackal‐headed god, whose primary purpose was to prepare the dead for their journey into the underworld) (Allaun, 2021). Similar evidence of the religious significance of dogs has been found in classical Mayan burial sites (ca 300–900 CE), where sculptures and mummies show that dogs were buried with their owners to guide their souls to the afterlife. Moreover, Hindus in parts of present‐day India and Nepal regard dogs as the guardians of the paradise gates, which they are associated with the god Vishnu (whose four dogs are said to represent the four Vedas, the ancient holy texts of the Hindus) (Fogle, 2013).

In ancient Iranian culture, the dog was considered an earthly symbol of the God Soroush that related to the spirit world and life after death. It is also a sacred symbol of the wing, which is a sign of holiness. Archaeological evidence mentions this issue realistically or symbolically (Khosravi & Khalilpour, 2019). The presence of imaginary dogs has been mentioned over and over again in supernatural myths and stories that indicate the symbolic importance of this animal in the cultures of different countries.

The role of dogs in various religions has been multifaceted, and different religious traditions have held varying viewpoints on dogs. In the case of Islam, the idea that dogs are impurities is a matter of interpretation and not a universally held belief (Polinsky, 2022). The Muslims’ hypothetical prejudice against dogs can be inferred primarily from two issues: The first, emphasizing that the Muslim tradition is based on the impurity of dogs; and the second, objecting to the acceptance and keeping of these animals as pets indoors (Tlili, 2018). There is mention of dogs in the Qur'an, but nowhere is it stated to mistreat dogs or that it is haram to have a dog. Unfortunately, it is a common belief in society that needs to be dispelled because Islam never viewed animals as useless beings that must be punished. In the Qur'an, Chapter 55, Ayat 10, it is explicitly said, ‘And the earth, He has assigned it to all living creatures’. There are also two references to dogs in the holy Qur'an. One of these is in Surah Maida Chapter 5, Verse 4, which indicates that ‘any prey brought to you by the dogs you train is halal for you to eat’. Another is Surah Al‐Kahf Chapter 18, Ayat 18, which describes the Ashab Al‐Kahf narrative and how their dogs would sit at the cave's entrance with spread arms to impress people.

Overall, there are various perspectives regarding the role of dogs in Islam. Although some Islamic traditions exhibit varying viewpoints, there is a prevailing acceptance of dogs for practical functions such as security and service. Addressing the challenges posed by the intersection of religious teachings and contemporary culture in modern life requires a reexamination of religious texts and fresh jurisprudential interpretations aligned with religious objectives. As an important component of ijtihad, jurisprudential inferences should be drawn in accordance with temporal and spatial situations (Jamali & Zolfaqartalab, 2021).

3.2. Canine in human society

3.2.1. Canine contributions: from urban companionship to rural and nomadic lifestyles

Despite the potential for technology to reduce the role of animals in our lives, dogs continue to play a dynamic role in human society (Sepúlveda et al., 2014). Dogs serve as integral and positive contributors to the daily lives of diverse communities, encompassing urban, rural and nomadic environments. Indeed, dogs play a significant role in enhancing the quality of life in urban areas through companionship and various roles like therapy and assistance (Gravrok et al., 2020). Studies have shown that dogs can modulate human affective reactivity and sense of safety in emotional urban public spaces (Delgado‐Rodríguez et al., 2022; Peel et al., 2023). Additionally, companion dogs have been found to improve physical activity levels and overall health among individuals, as seen in programmes like the VA Maryland Health Care System Whole Health(y) GeroFit Programme, where providing companion dogs led to improved ability to walk longer distances, increased physical activity and enhanced emotional well‐being among veterans (Ortmeyer et al., 2023). At the same time, dogs have historically played a key role in rural communities, particularly in tasks related to agriculture such as herding, guarding and hunting (Karlsen, 2006; Sepúlveda et al., 2014). Coexistence with dogs is particularly pronounced in nomadic lifestyles, where their roles extend beyond companionship (Sepúlveda et al., 2014). However, it is within nomadic lifestyles that their versatile abilities, from herding livestock to providing companionship on the move, make them indispensable members of these communities (Figure 6). Their adaptability across these varied situations underscores the universal significance of the positive role dogs play in human communities.

FIGURE 6.

Herding dogs in nomadic life and protection of their livestock (IRNA, 2019; Nikzad, 2020).

3.2.2. Canine service: canines in law enforcement and service roles

Dogs are instinctively capable of understanding and carrying out certain commands, but they require training to perform specific tasks for humans. There are various methods for training dogs, as well as various aims that are pursued through this training. These aims range from the most basic, that is, search and rescue, herding, hunting, assistant, emotional support and detection (Bulanda, 2012; Carballo et al., 2020; Konno et al., 2016; Lieberman et al., 2019; Martin et al., 2020). Furthermore, dogs are increasingly recognized for their contributions as animal models in scientific research (Baheti et al., 2023).

Moreover, dogs have always been an important part of law enforcement and military operations throughout history, and they remain so to this day (Fallahi et al., 2024). A police dog primarily roles as a detection dog employed by law enforcement agencies, especially in situations involving drug detection. Some countries are geopolitically located in an important region that is not only profitable for drug traffickers but also extremely vulnerable to the personal, social and economic consequences of drug usage. These regions often face heightened challenges in combating drug‐related crime and safeguarding their communities (Fallahi, 2017). The use of sniffers may be proposed as a response to this challenging situation.

Utilization of police dogs in law enforcement dates back more than a century. In 1888, bloodhounds were used for the first time in England to track down a serial killer named Jack (Walters, 2019). Ghent, Belgium, was recognized as the world leader in the use of police dogs in 1899, when police started officially training dogs for police work (Handy et al., 1961). In 1910, German shepherd dogs were used in German cities to control riots (Dorriety, 2005).

Dogs in war also have a long history that dates back to ancient times. War dogs were used by the Egyptians, Greeks, Persians, Sarmatians, Baganda, Alans, Slavs, Britons and Romans (Krause, 2021). The earliest use of war dogs in a battle was recorded among Alyattes, King of Lydia and the Cimmerians around 600 BC (Rees, 2020). Dogs were commonly used in the armies of the United States, Britain and Germany during recent centuries, and these dogs were trained for important tasks such as surveillance, mine detection and reconnaissance operations.

During the Vietnam War, US army units used 4000 dogs to clear caves and tunnels in the Vietcong, as well as to find booby traps and land mines (Kelly, 2018). Between 1930 and 1996, Soviet and Russian military forces extensively trained anti‐tank dogs that were used against German tanks in World War II from 1941 to 1942 (Yautukhovich et al., 2019). Anti‐tank dogs were trained to carry explosives to tanks, armoured vehicles and other military targets. Initially, dogs were taught to leave a timer‐detonated bomb and flee, but this routine failed and was replaced by one in which dogs were also killed. Training of anti‐tank dogs continued until 1996 (Edwards et al., 2020).

3.3. Regulations and policies regarding dog keeping

Dogs seem to play an important role in human society. However, dog owners are subject to legal regulations (Bremhorst et al., 2018). Various countries have enacted laws concerning the control of animals, especially dog. These laws cover the legal obligations of dog ownership, such as care and control, as well as the owner's liability for injuries caused by their dogs. These laws were enacted in general to protect animal welfare, citizens and the environment (Andersen et al., 2021).

In China, dog ownership has grown quite rapidly since the late 1980s (Hong, 2017). Consequently, the approach of dog keeping has been formally legalized. Beijing was the first city to enact regulations. These regulations, known as the ‘Beijing Controlled Pet Keeping Regulations’, were enacted in 1995. They were revised in 2003 and renamed ‘Beijing Dog‐keeping Regulations’ (Balaram & Su, 2011). The regulations on dog ownership in Beijing, including the ban on certain breeds and the imposition of an annual fee, reflect the city's evolving approach to human–canine relationships. This ban includes dangerous breeds or any breed with a height of more than 35 cm (Jeffreys, 2020), and all dogs must be vaccinated against rabies annually (International Center for Veterinary Services, 2022).

In the Netherlands, all dogs must be registered, and they must also have an ID microchip implanted. During walks, you must clean up your dog's mess and place it in designated bins (Government of the Netherlands, 2022). In 2017, the Dutch government released an official list of 20 different dog breeds that it deems dangerous or high‐risk (Dutch News, 2017). The next year, a new law came into effect, making it mandatory for the owners of these breeds to attend a course on keeping dogs with a tendency towards aggressive behaviour (Pettit, 2022).

In the United Kingdom, dog law covers many areas, including animal welfare, access, breeding, dog identification, dangerous dogs and travelling with your dog (Sullivan & Cooper, 2018). The 2018 animal welfare regulations of England enforce care standards, emphasizing disease prevention and minimizing suffering (Moxon, 2018). The United Kingdom, known for its robust animal welfare stance, faces debates post‐EU departure regarding opportunities like reviewing standards and recognizing animal sentience, alongside concerns over trade impacts and live animal import monitoring (Siettou, 2022). In April 2020, the United Kingdom introduced legislation to ban the sale of puppies by anyone other than the puppy's breeder. Moreover, it is illegal to sell a puppy under the age of 8 weeks (Blue Cross, 2022). According to the Dangerous Dogs Act 1991, Section 3, dogs must not be allowed to be dangerously out of control, which means injuring or making someone fearful of being injured. Owners who allow their pets to hurt a person face punishments of up to 3 years in prison for injury or 14 years for death, an unlimited fine, disqualification from owning pets, and having their dog destroyed (UK Legislation, 2023). There is no current limit on the number of dogs that can be owned in the United Kingdom. However, a council licence is required for breeding (The Barking Bugle, 2018).

In Italy, dogs are allowed in all public areas if they are kept on a lead no longer than 1.5 m long, except in the areas designated as dog parks. To ensure appropriate exercise for dogs kept in apartments, they often need to walk at least twice a day. The punishment for maltreatment of animals could result in up to 18 months of confinement or a fine of up to 30,000 euros. These punishments increase if the animal dies from maltreatment. A person can also be arrested or charged with a 1000–10,000 euros fine if they abandon an animal. If it is impossible, for whatever reason, to keep the dog, the best thing is to find someone who can adopt the dog or have to pay to put it in a shelter (Ardrey, 2016).

In Islamic countries, including Saudi Arabia, dogs are considered impure animals and are generally banned from public places; only guard, service or hunting dogs are allowed (The Barking Bugle, 2018). In Iran, some articles of the Islamic Penal Code refer to how a decision is made if a person's animal harms another person. For example, in some articles of this law, dogs are mentioned and the conditions of punishment for the dog owner are specified. According to Article 357 of Iran's Islamic Penal Code, the owner of any animal who is aware of the threats posed to their animal must protect it. Furthermore, the owner is liable if the animal causes loss or damage due to negligence (Jafarzadeh, 2006). Article 358 of Iran's Islamic Penal Code states that the repellent person is not a guarantor if an animal attacks someone and that person repels him in self‐defence to the extent necessary, and that defence results in the death or harm of that animal. However, Article 362 imposes liability on individuals who cause harm to animals through intentional acts of aggression (Islamic Consultative Assembly Research Center, 2013).

Moreover, concerns regarding the ethical consequences of the selective breeding practices persist globally (Rooney & Sargan, 2010; Croney, 2019). Although legislation exists in many countries to address the breeding of animals with genetic disorders, enforcement remains a challenge. These laws highlight that breeding is not permitted if the animals selected for breeding experience a reduced quality of life by having physical disabilities, enduring chronic pain, or not being able to express the full range of their behaviours (FOUR PAWS International, 2020). Animal welfare laws in various European countries, like Germany, Austria and the United Kingdom, prohibit breeding animals with genetic disorders causing dogs’ suffering (Euro Group for Animals, 2023). The Netherlands’ ban on breeding short‐snouted dogs sets a positive example for improving animal health, urging other nations to consider similar measures (Contalbrigo et al., 2023).

3.4. Economic significance of dog breeding

The pet industry has experienced substantial growth and development over the past many years. This trend is particularly in developed countries, where the market has been established for over a century. Considerable investments have promoted the industry's growth, leading to a wide range of products catering to the growing demand in the pet market. This development has been increased by advancements in modern technology, which have facilitated the growth and change of pet‐related offerings.

Predictions indicate a promising trajectory for the future of the pet industry, with expected substantial growth (Global Market Insights Inc, 2021). In 2017, the global sales value of pet care products attained a substantial value of $109.8 billion (Figure 7), further rising to $232 billion in 2020, emphasizing the remarkable economic magnitude of the pet industry (China International Pet Show, 2018; Global Market Insights Inc, 2021).

FIGURE 7.

Global market value of pet care products in 2017 (China International Pet Show, 2018).

The European and American markets with the largest market sizes are the main parts of the pet industry in the global market. The North American region, with a value of over $103 billion in 2020 (Graphical Research Inc, 2021), has accounted for a maximum value share of over 46% in the global pet care industry (Research & Markets Inc, 2021). Among world countries, the United States leads in the pet market industry with $123.6 billion in 2021 (Statista Inc, 2022). Figure 8 depicts the pet market in the United States from 2011 to 2021. Pet food and treatment, with approximately US$50 billion, is the most valuable market segment of the pet industry (APPA Inc, 2022) (Figure 9).

FIGURE 8.

Pet market sales in the United States from 2011 to 2021, by category (Statista Inc, 2022).

FIGURE 9.

Actual sales within the US market in 2021 (billions of dollars) (APPA Inc, 2022).

The dog is one of the most popular pets and has contributed the most to the expansion of the pet industry. According to data collected in the United States from 2006 to 2018, the average household income of a dog owner in 2016 was $96.7 thousand, which is an increase of 19.8% compared to 2006 (Figure 10).

FIGURE 10.

Average income of a dog owner in the United States from 2006 to 2016 (US$1000) (Zhang et al., 2022).

In Islamic countries, such as Iran, suitable conditions have been created for the use of the pet industry, especially for dogs. Due to the growing interest of the Iranian people in dogs and, on the other hand, the valuable role of this animal in the police and survival departments, the need for centres to breed and train them is felt more and more. The amount of income from dog breeding depends on the type of training. In Iran, it is estimated that the average annual income from breeding 50 trained guard or sniffer dogs is equal to 50% of the capital. However, if this animal is exported, the profit will be greater.

3.5. Global health risk: the stray dog's epidemic

Dogs are domesticated animals that have been diverged from their wild ancestors. They include several breeds with a variety of physical, behavioural and functional characteristics (Fallahi et al., 2024). In some countries, such as Iran, the increasing number of stray dogs and their introduction into habitats have significant implications for public health, animal welfare and wildlife.

3.5.1. Public health

Stray dogs can serve as vectors for diseases such as rabies, leptospirosis and various parasitic infections, all of which can be transmitted to humans (Taylor & Nel, 2015). Additionally, the presence of stray dogs leads to a higher incidence of bites and attacks, which not only cause physical but can also result in fatalities (Figure 11). These animals often scavenge for food, contributing to garbage spread and unsanitary conditions, which can attract other pests and lead to further health risks (Rahaman, 2017).

FIGURE 11.

An increase in the stray dog population is related to public health (Frawley, 2022).

3.5.2. Animal welfare and wildlife

The impact on wildlife is equally concerning, as the presence of stray dogs in natural habitats disrupts local ecosystems. Stray dogs may prey on native wildlife, including endangered species, thereby threatening biodiversity. They also pursue herbivores for long periods of time, which leads to muscular myopathy and their deaths (Figure 12). Dogs are the main hosts of many worms and are considered the main threat for other animals (Wilson‐Aggarwal et al., 2020). Wild herbivores consume contaminated feed as a result of canine defecating excrement on natural pastures, which causes cysts to form in their brains and ventricles, catastrophic brain damage and ultimately the death of the herbivore. The distemper virus, which was confirmed in 1996 to have been spread to lions by domestic dogs, destroyed one third of Tanzania's lion population in 1994 (Weckworth, Davis, Dubovi, et al., 2020). Moreover, a similar epidemic of canine distemper virus in Africa's lions drove them to the brink of extinction in 2001 (Weckworth, Davis, Roelke‐Parker, et al., 2020).

FIGURE 12.

An increase in the stray dog population is related to wildlife threats (Cheema, 2019; Singh Khadka, 2019).

Stray domesticated dogs are a major threat to the habitats of valuable species, including the Asian cheetah (Acinonyx jubatus venaticus). There were an estimated 400 Asian cheetahs in eastern Iran and west near the Iraqi border prior to the 1940s (Farhadinia et al., 2018). However, during the 2000s, only 82 cheetahs were detected by camera tracking in their habitat (Mohammadi et al., 2018). There are fewer habitats in the world that have a population of more than 20 Iranian cheetahs. Contrary to popular belief, cheetahs are much weaker than large dogs, both stray and herd, and 19 have been killed directly by stray dogs, according to reports (Nayeri et al., 2022).

The world's developed countries have faced these challenges for many years. Veterinary control and preventive approaches, such as vaccination and anti‐parasitic therapy, are often ineffective for managing stray dogs. To effectively address the issue of the stray dog population and also eliminate or minimize epidemics of infection, a comprehensive approach is essential. This requires the implementation of multifaceted interventions, including widespread vaccination initiatives, sterilization programmes, the provision of shelter and community‐driven educational programmes (Dhillon, 2017; Smith et al., 2019). Among these strategies, the adoption of proper waste management (as dogs’ easy available feeds), one of the community‐driven educational programmes, is one of the founding principles of controlling the stray domestic animal population (Wright et al., 2021). Improper management of stray dog populations can result in harmful impacts on wildlife due to food competition with endangered species within the ecosystem. Wildlife protection does not stop with the protection of stray dogs unless the number of stray dogs has been controlled and prevented (Javan Journalist Club, 2019).

4. CONCLUSION

This investigation has explored various dimensions of the human–dog relationship, including historical, cultural, socio‐economic and environmental aspects. The findings highlight the important roles of dogs as companions, service animals and symbols across various cultures and religions. Additionally, the study also highlights the economic significance of the pet industry, particularly dog breeding, emphasizes substantial market potential and the importance of sustainable practices. However, challenges such as stray dog epidemics and inadequate regulatory frameworks for dog ownership persist in some countries. Effectively addressing these issues requires the development and enforcement of evidence‐based policies and management strategies. The research supports applying approaches that improve the mutually beneficial human–dog relationship while ensuring both human and canine welfare. Future research should focus on the development of comprehensive strategies for effective stray dog management and the regulation of dog ownership practices. These strategies aim to address the challenges faced by specific countries while promoting responsible and ethical dog‐keeping practices.

AUTHOR CONTRIBUTIONS

Mohammad Fallahi: Data curation; formal analysis; investigation; methodology; visualization; writing – original draft. Ali Akbar Masoudi: Conceptualization; investigation; project administration; supervision; validation; writing – review and editing. Rasoul Vaez‐Torshizi: Investigation; methodology; validation; visualization. Ali Maghsoudi: Conceptualization; investigation; project administration; validation; visualization; writing – review and editing.

CONFLICT OF INTEREST STATEMENT

All authors have participated in (a) conception and design, or analysis and interpretation of the data; (b) drafting the article or revising it critically for important intellectual content and (c) approval of the final version. This manuscript has not been submitted to, nor is under review at, another journal or other publishing venue. The authors have no affiliation with any organization with a direct or indirect financial interest in the subject matter discussed in the manuscript.

FUNDING INFORMATION

This research received no specific grant from any funding agency in the public, commercial or not‐for‐profit sectors.

ETHICS STATEMENT

Hereby, I Mohammad Fallahi consciously assure that for this manuscript, the following is fulfilled:

• This material is the authors’ own original work, which has not been previously published elsewhere.

• The article is not currently being considered for publication elsewhere.

• The article reflects the authors’ own research and analysis in a truthful and complete manner.

• The article properly credits the meaningful contributions of co‐authors and co‐researchers.

• The results are appropriately placed in the context of prior and existing research.

• All sources used are properly disclosed (correct citation). Literally copying of text must be indicated as such by using quotation marks and giving proper reference.

• All authors have been personally and actively involved in substantial work leading to the article and will take public responsibility for its content.

INSTITUTIONAL REVIEW BOARD STATEMENT

This article is a comprehensive review of existing literature and historical data. Ethical approval was not required for this review article as it does not involve any direct experimentation or data collection involving animals or human subjects. The article strictly adheres to ethical guidelines and principles governing the use of existing information and secondary sources. The authors have ensured that all data cited in this review have been obtained ethically and have undergone prior ethical scrutiny by the original researchers or sources.

The authors acknowledge the importance of ethical considerations in research involving human or animal subjects and affirm their commitment to ethical standards in future studies that involve primary research.

SANCTIONS LAW AND REGULATIONS

The authors are employed at academic institution ‘Tarbiat Modares University’ where research or education is the primary function of the entity.

PEER REVIEW

The peer review history for this article is available at https://www.webofscience.com/api/gateway/wos/peer-review/10.1002/vms3.70012.

Fallahi, M. , Masoudi, A. A. , Vaez Torshizi, R. , & Maghsoudi, A. (2024). Socio‐economic evaluation of human–dog coexistence: A 40,000 years history. Veterinary Medicine and Science, 10, e70012. 10.1002/vms3.70012

DATA AVAILABILITY STATEMENT

The data that supports the findings of this study are available within the article.