Table 1.

Structural information and impact on the gastrointestinal health of fucose-containing carbohydrates from different sources.

No.	FCCs	Source	Molecular Weight (kDa)	Monosaccharide Composition	Fucose Content (%)	Sulfate Group Content (%)	Structure	Model (Dose)	Effect	Reference
1	Fucoidan	Laminaria japonica	654.55	Fuc/Gal/Rha/GlcA/GalA/Glc/Xyl/Man = 55.55/16.32/7.09/5.14/3.35/3.64/4.71/4.19	55.55 ± 1.19	33.68 ± 0.46	——	In vitro (10 mg/mL)	Improve the abundance of Bacteroides	[71]
2	HMAF	Laminaria japonica	1.5–20	Fuc/Gal/Rha/GlcA/GalA/Glc/Xyl = 14.62/18.57/0.73/42.49/10.58/6.03/6.98	14.62 ± 0.13	26.03 ± 0.79	——	In vitro (10 mg/mL)	Improve the abundance of Bacteroides, Bifidobacterium, Lactobacillus, and Megamonas; improve the production of SCFAs (acetate and propionate)
3	LMAF	Laminaria japonica	<1.5	Fuc/Gal/Rha/GlcA/GalA/Glc/Xyl/Man = 62.83/14.67/3.17/5.56/0.37/3.80/4.67/4.93	62.83 ± 0.86	30.51 ± 0.45	——	In vitro (10 mg/mL)	Promote level of butyrate, indole-3-propionic acid, and indole-3-carboxaldehyde
4	fCS-Sc	Stichopus chloronotus	111	GlcA/GalNAc/Fuc = 0.90/1.00/1.08	36.24	51.6	——	In vitro (10 mg/mL)	Increase the beneficial bacteria; suppress pathogenic microorganisms; promote SCFA production	[8]
5	FuL	Laminaria japonica	310	Man/GlcA/Glc/Gal/Xyl/Fuc = 11.2/7.3/5.2/19.3/2.9/54.1	54.1	18.4	Linkage mode: α(1→3)	HFD-induced obese mice (200 mg/kg)	Improve diet-induced metabolic syndrome (MetS); increase Bacteroides and Akkermansia	[42]
6	FuA	Ascophyllum nodosum	1330	Man/GlcA/Glc/Gal/Xyl/Fuc = 7.3/24.1/1.5/7.2/1.3/58.6	58.6	21	Linkage mode: α(1→3)/α(1→4)	HFD-induced obese mice (200 mg/kg)	Increase the amount of Akkermansia during alleviation of MetS
7	FUC	Undaria pinnatifida	309	——	20.3	27.8	α-1,3-linked-l-fucose-4-sulfate	HFD-induced obese mice (100 mg/kg)	Increase the BSH activity in the ileal content	[72]
8	SFP	Sargassum fusiforme	703	Fuc/Gal = 73.16/26.84	73.16	23.6	1,3-, 1,4-, 1,3,4-linked-α-l-Fucp and 1,3-, 1,6-linked-β-d-Galp with partial sulfation at C-4, C-3 of fucose units and C-6, C-3 of galactose units	HFD-induced obese mice (100 mg/kg/d)	Beneficial effects on disorders of intestinal microbiota (decreasing the ratio of Firmicutes/Bacteroidetes (F/B))	[19]
9	fCS-Ib	Isostichopus badionotus	10.9	GlcA/GalNAc/Fuc = 1.43/1/1.71	41.3	——	——	High-fat and high-fructose diet-induced obese mice (20 mg/kg/d)	Reverse the increase of F/B value induced by obesity	[56]
10	Am-CHS	Acaudina molpadioides	21.53	GlcA/GalNAc/Fuc = 1/1.14/1.55	42	27.81	——	HFD-induced obese mice (80 mg/kg)	Decrease in Bacteroidetes, increase in Firmicutes, and elevation in SCFA-producing bacteria	[30]
11	Fucoidan	Undaria pinnatifida	220	——	23.05 ± 0.2	26.84 ± 0.3	——	Standard quadruple therapy (SQT) for patients (positive for H. pylori) (2000 mg/d)	Improve gut dysbiosis during SQT for H. pylori eradication	[73]
12	HLP	Holothuria leucospilota	52.8	Rha/Fuc/GlcA/Gal/Glc/Xyl = 39.08/35.72/10.72/8.43/4.23/1.83	35.72	——	——	Type 2 diabetes mellitus rats (100–200 mg/kg)	Increase the short-chain fatty acid-producing bacteria and decrease the opportunistic bacterial pathogen	[74]
13	Fu	Sargassum hemiphyllum	440	Fuc/hexA/Gal/Glc/GalNAc = 51.2/16.2/15.8/12.2/4.6	51.2	12.87	——	AGS cell (250–2000 μg/mL); BALB/c mice (800 mg/kg/d)	Inhibit adhesion of H. pylori (Hp) and total count in vitro; reduce the count of Hp in vivo	[75]
14	Fucoidan	Cladosiphon okamuranus	——	——	——	——	——	In vitro (2–2000 μg/mL); Mongolian gerbils (0.05 and 0.5%)	Inhibit the Hp attachment in vitro; reduction of H. pylori-induced gastritis and the prevalence of Hp infected animals	[76]
15	FPD	——	——	——	——	——	——	Patients with confirmed Hp infection (2 mg/d)	Eradication and clearance of Hp at the rate of 77.6% (66/85) and 20.0% (17/85), respectively, after 4 weeks treatment	[77]
16	Ofuc	Macrocystis pyrifera	1–3	——	——	——	——	In vitro (20 μg/mL)	Recognition by specific Ulex europaeus fucose-specific lectin and Campylobacter jejuni	[78]
17	fucoidan	Fucus vesiculosus	<200	Fuc/Gal/Xyl/Man = 89.6/5.2/3.9/1.4	89.6	26	——	In vitro (2.40 and 24.00 mg/mL)	Inhibit the binding of hNoV GII.4 virus-like particle (VLPs) to type A saliva	[79]
18								Zebrafish (Danio rerio) larvae (6.00 mg/mL)	Inhibit the replication of human noroviruses (hNoV) GII.4[P16] in zebrafish	[80]
19	Galactofucan	Sargassum fusiforme	21.33	Man/Rha/GlcUA/Gal/Fu = 0.31/0.40/0.53/0.82/1.00	32.7	16.08	——	In vitro (3–12 mg/mL)	Prevent the binding of NoV GII.4 virus-like particles to histo-blood group antigens	[81]
20	FeF	Fucus evanescens	160	Fuc/Gal = 9/1	90	28	→3)-α-l-Fucp(2,4OSO3−)-(1→4)-α-l-Fucp(2OSO3−)-(1→) and (→3)-α-l-Fucp(2OSO3−)-(1→4)-α-l-Fucp(2OSO3−)-(1→	African green monkey kidney (Vero) cells (0.2–2000 μg/mL)	Moderate replication inhibition against ECHO-1 (enterovirus)	[82]
	FeHMP		50.8	Fuc/Gal = 1/0	100	40	→3)-α-l-Fucp(2,4OSO3−)-(1→4)-α-l-Fucp(2,4OSO3−)-(1→
21	Fv	Fucus vesiculosus	20–200	——	33	23	——	In vitro (100 mg/mL)	Antimicrobial activity against Candida albicans	[83]
22	Fucoidan (Sigma)	Fucus vesiculosus	95	——	——	——	——	Ulcer rat model induced by aspirin (20 mg/kg)	Protect against oxidative damage to gastric mucosa during ulceration	[84]
23	Fucoidan (Sigma)	Fucus vesiculosus	——	——	——	——	——	Ulcer rat model induced by ethanol (25 and 50 mg/kg)	Mitigation of gastric ulceration severity	[85]
24	FucoMax®	Undaria pinnatifida; Laminaria saccharina; Cladosiphon okamuranus	200	——	——	——	Linkage mode: α(1→2)/α(1→4)	Ulcer rat model induced by ethanol (50 mg/kg)	Protection against ethanol-induced gastric mucosal damage in rats	[86]
25	Fucoidan	Cladosiphon Okamuranus	——	——	——	——	——	Patients with gastric ulcers (100 mg/d)	Reduce ulcer symptoms and protection against the oxidative damage to gastric mucosa during ulceration	[87]
26	Fucoidan	Scytosiphon lomentaria	∼103 & ∼460	Man/Gal/Fuc/galA/glu/Xyl/Rha/GlcA/17.1/13.6/15.9/4.7/3.3/5.7/1.0/1.1	25.4	15.5	——	DSS and FD-fed ulcerative colitis mouse model (100 mg/kg)	Improve UC symptoms, oxidative stress, colonic inflammation, and tight junction dysfunction	[88]
27	Fucoidan (Sigma)	Fucus vesiculosus	——	——	——	——	——	T84 cells (50 μg/mL)	Inhibit cell adhesion to CD11b/CD18 and leukocyte migration	[89]
28	Fucoidan	Laminaria saccharina	——	——	40.5	36.7	——	Rats with peritonitis (0.7 μg/d)	Inhibit neutrophil release into the abdominal cavity	[90]
29	MPF	Macrocystis pyrifera	66	Fuc/Xyl/Man/Gal/Glu/Ara/Rha = 66.2/3.1/5.9/15.6/3.9/2.3/3.0	66.2	25.7	——	DSS-induced acute colitis mouse model (400 mg/kg)	Reduce oxidative stress and inflammation in DSS-induced colitis	[28]
	DP-MPF		17.4	Fuc/Xyl/Man/Gal/Glu/Ara/Rha = 62.9/4.5/8.1/14.3/6.9/0.4/3.0	62.9	19.7	——
30	Fucoidan	Fucus vesiculosus	170	——	38	20	——	DSS-induced acute colitis mouse model (100 and 300 mg/kg)	Enhance disease recovery; bolster intestinal barrier function	[91]
31	Fucoidan	Cladosiphon okamuranus	——	——	——	——	——	Caco-2 cells (2.5 mg/mL)	Prevent H2O2-induced disruption of the intestinal epithelial barrier	[92]
32	fCS-Sc	Stichopus chloronotus	111	GlcA/GalNAc/Fuc = 0.90/1.00/1.08	36.24	51.6	——	Caco-2 cells (25–400 μg/mL); intestinal oxidative injury mouse model (50–200 mg/kg)	Enhance intestinal barrier function; mitigate oxidative stress in vitro and in vivo	[93]
33	Fucoidan (Sigma)	Fucus vesiculosus	——	——	——	——	——	HT-29 cell; HCT116 cell (0–20 μg/mL)	Suppress human colon cancer cell growth and induction of apoptosis	[94]
34	Fucoidan (Sigma)	Fucus vesiculosus	95	——	——	——	——	HT29 colon cancer cell (0–150 μg/mL)	Inhibit HT29 colon cancer cell growth	[38]
35	Fucoidan (Sigma)	Fucus vesiculosus	——	——	——	——	——	AGS, MGC80-3 and HGC-27 cells (10 mg/mL)	Suppress gastric cancer cell growth, migration, and invasion	[95]
36	Fucoidan (Sigma)	Fucus vesiculosus	——	——	——	——	——	Sonic hedgehog medulloblastoma animal model (——)	Enhance vismodegib delivery to medulloblastoma tumors via fucoidan binding to P-selectin	[96]
37	Fucoidan (Sigma)	Fucus vesiculosus	——	——	——	——	——	CT26.wt murine (1.85 mg/kg); CT26.wt cells (2.5 mg/mL)	Improve tumor control (volume, density, and growth rate) and survival in a syngeneic CRC	[97]
38	ShF1	Sargassum hornery	——	Fuc/Gal/Rha/Xyl = 1/0.1/0.09/0.04	81.3	14.9	(1,3)-linked α-l-fucopyranose residues with sulfate groups at positions 2	DDL human colon cancer cell line (50–400 μg/mL)	Colony formation inhibition in DLD-1 colon cancer cells by ShF1, EcF1, and CcF1, with potencies of 44%, 50%, and 55%, respectively	[98]
39	EcF1	Eclonia cava	——	Fuc/Gal/Man/Rha = 1/0.21/0.05/0.16	70.4	19.1	Sulfated 1,3-α-l-fucan
	CcF	Costaria costata	——	Fuc/Gal/Man/Rha/Xyl = 1/0.83/0.01/0.05/0.06	51.2	18.9	Sulfated and acetylated galactofucan except for C6 of galactose residues
	SmF3	Sargassum mcclurei	——	Fuc/Gal = 58.5/41.5	58.5	35	→3)-α-l-Fucp(2,4SO3−)-(1→3)-α-l-Fucp(2,4SO3−)-(1→ motif with 1,4-linked 3-sulfated α-l-Fucp inserts and 6-linked galactose on reducing end	DDL human colon cancer cell line (50–200 μg/mL)	Colony formation inhibition in colon cancer DLD-1 cells	[20]

——, not determined.