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. 2024 Mar 8;18(5):2289–2298. doi: 10.1007/s11571-024-10083-3

Acute and chronic effects of exercise intensity on cognitive functions of fastball athletes

Sonia Kapur 1,✉, Ghosha Mukeshbhai Joshi 1
PMCID: PMC11564466  PMID: 39555261

Abstract

Exercise induced Cognitive Function is an area needed in competitive fast ball sports that has stimulated interests of researchers due to its promising applicability in the field. It was noticed that although previous studies have suggested a role of exercise in facilitating cognitive performance, little is known regarding how to maximize these benefits. The study is undertaken to understand the effects of two types of aerobic training i.e., High Intensity Interval Exercise (HIIE) and Moderate Intensity Continuous Exercise (MCE) on executive function. For the assessment of cognition, after a four-week protocol, the Vienna Test System, a computerized assessment tool developed by Schuhfried GmbH (Moedling, Austria) is used for a defined universe of selected 20 athletes from various fast ball sports such as cricket, football, handball and volleyball. Statistical Analysis of Repeated Measured ANOVA along with post hoc test was done using SPSS version 21. Level of significance was kept at 5% with 95% study power. Collectively three variables, namely Sum of correct reactions, Sum of incorrect reactions and Sum of incorrect non-reactions; revealed improvement in attention, inhibitory function as well as executive function (p < 0.05). For fast ball athletes, the present study is suggestive of including MCE or HIIE programme in their training for 3 sessions/week; in order to optimize the improvement in cognitive level. The study can potentially guide every sports medicine team member, in order to develop an effective exercise protocol to improve the physiological as well as psychological capabilities of the athletes.

Keywords: High intensity interval exercise, Moderate intensity continuous exercise, Vienna testing system, Cognition, Executive function, Fast ball sports

Introduction

Historically, physical (physiological) and mental (psychological) strengths are pre-requisites for any sports activities and improvement in both these strengths can also be viewed as outcome of that sports activity. For psychological strengths, Cognitive functions described by knowledge, understanding, judgement, awareness, memory, reasoning and decision making play a vital role. In today’s highly competitive sports arena, Fast ball athletes are always expected to maintain optimum level of individual skills, fitness and cognitive skills. This fact has stimulated interest in researchers and there has been a consistent flow of literature showing positive effect of physical activity on cognition level (Hillman. et al. 2008; Alves. et al. 2014). Few studies have clearly demonstrated that Cognitive processes including executive function can be improved with long term physical activity; and some have shown that although it may be transient but single bout of aerobic training significantly enhances performance during cognitive function assessment (Chang. et al. 2012; Ludyga. et al. 2016; Kao. et al. 2018) Efficiency and speed of decision making, executive function as well as attention and concentration, are important aspects of cognition and VTS (Vienna Testing System) being an effective assessment tool capable of studying these characteristics has been preferentially used in previous studies.

Mechanism of changes in cognitive performance

Theoretical knowledge and previous research have shown that improvement in cognitive functions in relation to cardiorespiratory fitness can be attributed to changes in cellular and molecular pathways that are likely to initiate changes in the macroscopic properties of the brain and behaviour (Ito, S., 2019; Wang. et al. 2022, Stillman, C. M., 2016). Positive changes in cognition are suggested due to neuronal activation and excitation levels. Pre-frontal cortex is involved in many cognitive processes including attention, decision-making, executive function, and working memory. Enhancement in the activity of dorso-lateral—and fronto-polar area of pre-frontal cortex leads to improvement in cognition (Byun et al.., 2014; Shenoy. et al. 2021). There are also various evidence-based researches on neurological domain that signify the importance of physical activity on cognition. Other such mechanisms positively affecting cognitive performance include facilitated regional cerebral blood flow, changes in neuronal growth factors (e.g., brain-derived neurotrophic factor, insulin-like growth factor) (Erickson et al.., 2011; Haapala, E. A., 2013; Alves. et al. 2014) and catecholamines (i.e., epinephrine, dopamine, norepinephrine) (Winter. et al. 2007). The exercise-induced up-regulation of these neurotransmitters and neurotrophins can facilitate cerebral neural activation and neurogenesis (Sun. et al. 2019).

Additionally, due to aerobic exercise, structural changes to the hippocampus have been observed that have effect on improvement in memory and stress regulation. In response to aerobic exercise, neurogenesis and increased white matter connectivity have been observed. Improvement in physical fitness as well as cognition, academic achievement and psychosocial function can be attributed to adaptive plasticity (Thomas. et al. 2012).

There are a few factors that may modulate the exercise induced effects on cognition; namely, Exercise intensity (Kashihara. et al. 2009); Exercise type and duration (Brisswalter. et al. 2002; Kao. et al. 2018); Cognitive performance to be evaluated and time of measurement in relation to exercise (Chang. et al. 2012; Samuel. et al. 2017; Hüttermann, S. et al. 2014).

Effects of intensity on cognition

High Intensity Interval Exercise (HIIE) is generally characterized by bouts of vigorous exercise (85–95% of HR max) interspersed by periods of passive or active recovery (40–50% of HR max) (Fiorelli. et al. 2019; Ito, S., 2019; Wang. et al. 2022). There are a few interesting research studies reporting improved cognitive performance with acute as well as long term HIIT training. (Alves. et al. 2014; Tsukamoto. et al. 2016; Kao. et al. 2018).

Moderate intensity continuous exercise (MCE), on the other hand is the physical exercise at moderate intensity for a long duration (30–60 min (Lima et al. 2022). MCE is effective in improving Executive function whether it is given as a single bout (Hillman. et al. 2003; Tsukamoto. et al. 2016) or given for long-term in young healthy adults (Baker. et al. 2010).

While comparing both the HIIE and MCE, literature has suggested certain differences in acute as well as long term effects on cognitive functions. The variation in the effects depends on Intensity, as an inverted U relationship observed between activation of central nervous system and exercise workload. (Brisswalter. et al. 2002; Kashihara. et al. 2009; Alves. et al. 2014) Supporting such hypothesis of an inverted-U function, Samuel. et al. 2017 found that supramaximal dynamic exercise in healthy young adults resulted in decreased cerebral oxygenation, which signifies lower cerebral cortex activity.

However, some studies have found that high intensity exercises with imposed adequate rest in between (High Intensity Interval Training) can alter the deterioration of cognitive function. Beneficial and long lasting (Wang. et al. 2022) effect of HIIE in comparison with MCE on cognitive parameters (Kao. et al. 2018) and selective attention (Kao. et al. 2018) have been reported.

Thus, various studies have suggested a potent role of exercise in facilitating cognitive performance but little is known regarding how to maximize these benefits considering above factors. This forms the basis of the inference that in today’s competitive sporting environment, more research attention should be devoted to examining the role of intensity and the schedule of exercise in relation to cognitive effects; and the study reported in this paper is a humble attempt to address this. Although there are plenty of literature available in this area, the present study, to the best of Authors’ knowledge, is the first exploratory attempt to compare the Acute as well as Chronic effects of HIIE and MCE on cognition amongst fast ball athletes.

Methodology

With the above stated research objectives, the present study was undertaken as a randomized experimental study including 3 measurements (Pre, Acute (Immediate) and Chronic (After 4 weeks)); details of which are as under:

Participants

20 selected Fast ball athletes with mean Age of 22.10 ± 2.38 years; Body Mass 65.2 ± 8.90 kg; Height 1.70 ± 0.08 m and Body Mass Index (BMI) of 22.40 ± 2.15 kg/m2 from sports like football (n = 6; HIIE-3, MCE-3), handball (n = 3; HIIE-1, MCE-2),, cricket (n = 8; HIIE-4, MCE-4), and volleyball (n = 3; HIIE-2, MCE-1), volunteered to participate in the experimental study (written informed consent was obtained). A priori power analysis was conducted by G-Power Version 3.1.9.4 to estimate the sample size. (Sample size = 20, Effect size = 0.38, α err prob = 0.05, power (1-β) = 0.95) Participants included were asymptomatic fit players with no injuries, no psychological issues or neurological disorders and cardiovascular disorders. The study proposal was approved by Institutional Ethical Committee. (No. 307; Dated 07/04/2022).

Experimental approach to the problem/testing procedure

The participants were randomly assigned between 2 groups: HIIE (High Intensity Interval training) & MCE (Moderate Intensity Continuous Exercise). Randomization performed using a simple chit method. Both groups were given laboratory based four weeks of aerobic training and outcome measure selected was cognitive performance. Pre, Immediate and Post assessment of cognition on Vienna testing system was performed.

Exercise protocol

For each aerobic training, the participants were provided 12 sessions in the Neurophysiology Lab thrice/week for 4 weeks in order to maintain a controlled environment. The participants were priorly instructed to steer clear of (1) vigorous physical activity and 2 or more than 2 cups of caffeine at least 6 h, (2) heavy meal for 2 h before, (3) alcoholic beverages at least 24 h, and (4) poor sleep prior to each laboratory visit (Kao. et al. 2018; Shenoy. et al. 2021). The subjects were requested to maintain their normal diet routines and extra calorie requirements were fulfilled with a refreshment after every session. Concerning learning effect, the first session was conducted a week later after pre-assessment and immediate assessment was conducted on the same day (Alves. et al. 2014; Shenoy. et al. 2021).

The participants cycled on stationary bike (Fig. 1), model: Lode Corival BV Groningen, The Netherlands, with target heart rate monitored using Polar Vantage V Multi-Sports Watch (Alves. et al. 2014; Shenoy. et al. 2021). Seat height was adjusted according to subjects’ comfort level with a Top bar cycling position. Duration of each session lasted 45–50 min for MCE and 30–35 min for HIIE group. HRmax (beats/min) was calculated by the formula: (Fox et al. 2013; McArdle 2010).

Fig. 1.

Fig. 1

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Aerobic training on Lode Corival BV Groningen; HR monitoring with Polar Vantage V

HRmax = 206.9—0.67 X age (y).

The training session started with 3 min of warm up and ended with 2 min of cool down at pedalling frequency and intensity according to participant preferences (Kao. et al. 2018). Exercise Intensity were increased at the beginning of every minute by adjusting the work load (W) and pedalling frequency (rpm) according to participants’ HR responses (Sun. et al. 2019). Adjustments were made in these two if the actual heart rate deviated from target heart rate more than 5 beats per min.

HIIE group

HIIE protocol was of 4 bouts of 4 min (4 × 4) at 90–95% HRmax with 3 min active recovery at 70% HRmax (Helgerud et al. 2007) (Fig. 2). The workload varied from 90 to 140 W and pedalling frequency ranged from 60 to 90 rpm.

Fig. 2.

Fig. 2

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Schematic representation of High Intensity interval exercise protocol

MCE group

The MCE protocol was volume-matched to the HIIE protocol and programmed at 60% of HRmax for 40 min (Fig. 3).

Fig. 3.

Fig. 3

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Schematic representation of Moderate intensity continuous exercise

Cognitive assessment

The computerized neurocognitive function test (Vienna test system, Schuhfried GmbH, Austria version 8.9.10.30930) was used to evaluate cognitive function which includes assessment of attention and concentration through comparison of figures with regard to their congruence (Fig. 4). Test form of fixed working time (S4) was selected, which required the respondent to make 200 comparisons in fixed working time (1.8 s).

Fig. 4.

Fig. 4

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Assessment of cognition on Vienna testing system

In a quiet room the player was introduced to the Test by an instruction followed by trial time. For a set of 200 items, the respondent was required to press the green button if the comparison figure was identical with one of the reference figures, but if it was not identical, he was instructed not to react at all. The players were instructed to work as quickly and accurately as possible.

The computerized analysis included variables namely ‘Total correct and incorrect reactions’ as well as ‘Total incorrect non-reaction’ signifying accuracy, attention, inhibitory and executive functions. The time of correct as well as incorrect reactions indicated to the reaction time.

The cognitive assessments were implemented on three different occasions namely Pre, Immediate and Post assessment. The Pre assessment was 7 days before the starting of aerobic training. The Immediate/Acute assessment was performed between 11 and 20 min of completion of exercise session to check the immediate effect of both HIIE and MCE session. After 4 weeks of training, the Post test was performed on the next day of completing last session to avoid any acute effect of training session.

Statistical analysis

The cognitive data were statistically analysed using SPSS statistics version 21 (IBM, Chicago, IL, USA). Before applying statistical tests, data were screened for normal distribution by Shapiro–wilk test. Power of study was kept at 95% and level of significance was kept at 5%. All data were analysed using repeated-measures analysis of variance Within-Between ANOVA approach for difference across time. Specific differences were identified with a Bonferroni post-hoc test. The partial eta squared (η2) suggested effect size and interpreted as small (effect size > 0.01), medium (effect size > 0.06), or large (effect size > 0.14).

Results

All the variables suggestive of cognitive performance were obtained using VTS system (Table 1).

Table 1.

Descriptive statistics of cognitive performance

HIIE MCE
Total correct reaction
Pre 59.00 ± 8.23 61.40 ± 4.67
Immediate 66.00 ± 6.27 65.60 ± 5.85
Post 65.40 ± 9.23 68.20 ± 3.22
Total incorrect reaction
Pre 20.00 ± 7.15 17.60 ± 6.36
Immediate 14.00 ± 8.23 12.90 ± 3.81
Post 15.60 ± 8.04 09.80 ± 2.20
Total incorrect non-reaction
Pre 21.00 ± 8.23 18.60 ± 4.67
Immediate 14.10 ± 6.17 14.40 ± 5.85
Post 14.60 ± 9.23 11.20 ± 1.75
Time of correct reaction
Pre 01.12 ± 0.07 01.11 ± 0.56
Immediate 01.07 ± 0.07 01.04 ± 0.06
Post 01.09 ± 0.09 01.02 ± 0.06
Time of incorrect reaction
Pre 01.13 ± 0.09 01.16 ± 0.01
Immediate 01.17 ± 0.09 01.09 ± 0.12
Post 01.16 ± 0.11 01.06 ± 0.15
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Values are presented as Means ± Standard deviation. HIIE: high-intensity interval exercise, MCE: moderate-intensity continuous exercise, Pre: Pre-exercise, Immediate; immediately after exercise, Post; after 4 weeks of exercise

Further, analysis of repeated measures ANOVA is denoted. Since Mauchly's test revealed that there was no violation of sphericity assumption, all the values for Sphericity Assumed values are reported.

Total correct reaction

Analysis revealed that there was a significant difference within subject across time in Total correct reaction score [F(2,36) = 22.960, p = 0.000]. Additionally, there was no significant difference in Total correct reactions score [F(2,36) = 1.379, p = 0.265] for time*groups and no significant difference in Total correct reaction [F(1,18) = 0.358, p = 0.557] between both groups (Fig. 5).

Fig. 5.

Fig. 5

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Total correct reaction (Pre, Immediate and post)

Post hoc analysis suggested significant increase in Total correct reaction between Pre and Immediate result. (p = 0.000) Also, there was a significant increase in Total correct reaction between Pre and Post results. (p = 0.000).

Total incorrect reaction

Analysis has further shown that there was a significant difference within subject across time in Total incorrect reaction score [F(2,36) = 10.750, p = 0.000]. Additionally, there was no significant difference in Total of incorrect reactions score [F(2,36) = 1.431, p = 0.252] for time*groups and no significant difference in Total incorrect reaction [F(1,18) = 1.789, p = 0.198] between both groups (Fig. 6).

Fig. 6.

Fig. 6

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Total incorrect reaction (Pre, Immediate and post)

Post hoc analysis suggested significant decrease in Total incorrect reaction between Pre and Immediate result. (p = 0.003) Also, there was a significant decrease in Total incorrect reaction between Pre and Post results. (p = 0.004).

Total incorrect non-reaction

Analysis also revealed that there was a significant difference within subject across time in Total incorrect non-reaction score [F(2,36) = 22.899, p = 0.000]. Additionally, there was no significant difference in Total of incorrect non-reactions score [F(2,36) = 1.568, p = 0.222] for time*groups and no significant difference in Total incorrect non-reaction [F(1,18) = 0.496, p = 0.490] between both groups (Fig. 7).

Fig. 7.

Fig. 7

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Total Incorrect non-reaction (Pre, Immediate and post)

Post hoc analysis suggested significant decrease in Total incorrect non-reaction between Pre and Immediate result. (p = 0.000) There was a significant decrease in Total incorrect non-reaction between Pre and Post results. (p = 0.000).

Time of correct reaction

Analysis has further revealed that there was a significant difference within subject across time; in Time of correct reaction score [F(2,36) = 7.127, p = 0.002]. Additionally, there was no significant difference in Time of correct reactions score [F(2,36) = 1.870, p = 0.169] for time*groups and no significant difference in Time of correct reaction [F(1,18) = 2.077, p = 0.167] between both groups (Fig. 8).

Fig. 8.

Fig. 8

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Time of correct reaction (Pre, Immediate and post)

Post hoc analysis suggested significant decrease in Time of correct reaction between Pre and Immediate result. (p = 0.007) Also, there was a significant decrease in Time of correct reaction between Pre and Post result. (p = 0.024).

Time of incorrect reaction

Analysis revealed that there was a significant difference within subject across time; in Time of incorrect reaction score [F(2,36) = 0.513, p = 0.603]. Additionally, there was no significant difference in Time of incorrect reactions score [F(2,36) = 2.149, p = 0.131] for time*groups and no significant difference in Time of time incorrect reaction [F(1,18) = 1.913, p = 0.184] between both groups (Fig. 9).

Fig. 9.

Fig. 9

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Time of incorrect reaction (Pre, Immediate and post)

Post hoc analysis suggested no significant difference in mean Time of incorrect reaction for Pre, Immediate and Post result.

Discussion

In this research, an effort has been made to understand and interpret the results of this extensive lab-based study and further to examine a logical connection between findings of this study, review of previous literature and objectives described of the study. The primary purpose of this research was to examine cognitive effect of aerobic training of different intensities (i.e., Moderate intensity continuous exercise (MCE) and High intensity interval training (HIIE)).

Effect of aerobic exercise in relation with time

The current study showed significant difference between pre to immediate and pre to post scores of Total correct reactions (p < 0.05). The results can be suggestive of gradual improvement in response accuracy, attention, working memory and executive function after a first session and after four weeks training. Both HIIE and MCE showed similar effects on cognitive function. The present study reaffirmed the findings of (Griffin. et al. 2011) who suggested improvement in cognitive performance after a single bout as well as after five weeks of aerobic training. A probable explanation for the improvement in performance in some of the cognitive tests in the present study could be an “exercise induced allocation of attention”.

Unique to this study, the Total incorrect reactions and Total incorrect non-reactions were significantly different between Pre, Immediate and Post scores (p < 0.05). The result showed decrease in scores from Pre to Immediate and Post scores in both HIIE as well as MCE groups similarly. These results revealed improvement in inhibition component of cognition.

Although explicit measurements of various phenomena/mechanism which can be attributed to these improvements were beyond the scope of the present study, it implicitly endorses the published literature suggesting such mechanisms. One such mechanism is exercise-induced increase in Brain Derived Neurotrophic Factor (BDNF), neurotrophins, neurotransmitters and neuromodulators concentration, (Basso, J. C. et al. 2017) which can affect executive function and working memory. Another mechanism could be cerebral neural activation achieved through aerobic training. Cognitive improvement observed can also be attributed to increase in cerebral blood flow following acute exercise (Pontifex. et al. 2017; Bae, S., et al. 2019).

Mean time correct reaction, which is suggestive of reaction time, was significantly different in Pre, Immediate and Post scores (p < 0.05). It was indicative of improvement in reaction time in both the HIIE and MCE groups with almost matching trends. Similarly, results of Chmura et al. (1997) showed gradual improvements in reaction timings after exercising at 75% of their VO2 peak.

Although Mean time of incorrect reactions were found to be not significantly different between groups or time (p > 0.05). This may suggest that there was null effect of aerobic training on reaction time when combined with inhibition.

Despite the strong desire and every possible effort to achieve completeness, the present study, is obviously constrained by its limitations in terms of time and resources. Intra-populous variations in fast ball athletes, other confounding factors such as “brain-training game” and non-uniform phenomenon of development of fatigue can influence the effects of aerobic training on cognitive functions. Additionally, the study did not quantitatively measure the potential phenomena/mechanisms occurring during the study. Along with limited sample size and training duration, the study results were indicative of data in a well-controlled environment which can be further studied in real game situations.

Conclusion

Our ancient Indian scriptures have succinctly epitomised the eternal importance of having a compatible merger of sound body and sound mind while defining a healthy human being. Ours is the only culture in the entire world, which could distinguish between “Intelligence” and “Intellect” and that too centuries ago! The present research study, though based on a structured approach with the state-of-the-art scientific tools within the framework of modern theories of physiology and psychology, can only be viewed as a small step of revisiting our ancient wisdom, off course in light of the today’s paradigm of competitive sports. Let it enlighten our future path of understanding this simple and yet complex phenomenon!

It is apparent that even a single session of aerobic training would have a combined benefit, physiologically and psychologically, which is beneficial in sports competitive environments. Both HIIE and MCE may be considered as useful tools to fight the inactivity pandemic with additional benefit of cognitive up-regulation, which should be considered by physical educators, trainers, coaches, sports science professionals as well as researchers. Although it was an comprehensive analysis, future researches might include mechanisms of exercise induced cognitive response, using instruments such as functional near infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS).

Summing up, it can be accepted and acknowledged that any improvement in the cognitive functions of the fast ball athletes by way of imparting training can certainly help in the match deciding moments and all possible efforts leading to such improvements are therefore most welcome. In this context, the present study suggests including High Intensity or Moderate Intensity exercise in the training for fast ball athletes, for 3 sessions/week; in order to optimize the improvement in cognitive level without leading to unnecessary mental fatigue that may adversely affect the performance.

Data availabililty

Data will be shared by corresponding author upon reasonable request.

Declarations

Conflict of interest

The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.

Footnotes

Publisher's Note

Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

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Associated Data

This section collects any data citations, data availability statements, or supplementary materials included in this article.

Data Availability Statement

Data will be shared by corresponding author upon reasonable request.

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