Attitudes of Jordanian school students toward dictionaries

Abstract

This study aims to explore the attitude of English as a Foreign Language Learners (EFLL) in Jordanian schools about the use of different dictionary types - including paper-based, electronic monolingual, or electronic bilingual dictionaries. It also examines the challenges students face while using their dictionaries. To this end, a questionnaire was distributed among sixty-four students studying at the middle school level. The findings indicated a preference for electronic and bilingual dictionaries over monolingual paper dictionaries among most students. Based on their responses, the students predominantly use dictionaries to search for pronunciations (34.37 %) and various meanings of a word (polysemy and homonymy) (18.75 %). Preparation for speaking activities is primarily why they search for pronunciations. However, the search for abbreviations and parts of speech and other grammatical information is less frequent. Lastly, the students showed a preference for the use of more pictures and visual aids offered in pictorial dictionaries.

1. Introduction

Dictionaries are essential tools for English as a Foreign Language (EFL) learners, as they offer significant support in understanding vocabulary, pronunciation, and usage. Whether paper-based or electronic, bilingual or monolingual, dictionaries play a crucial role in enhancing language skills (see Refs. [1,2]). They provide EFL learners with a comprehensive resource that helps them decode meanings, improve pronunciation, and understand grammatical structures, which are vital for effective communication [3].

For EFL learners, dictionaries serve not only as a repository of word meanings but also as an aid in expanding vocabulary and refining language comprehension. Research has demonstrated that the use of dictionaries by learners during reading and listening activities enhances vocabulary acquisition and comprehension [4,5]. By consulting dictionaries, learners can better understand unfamiliar words, which, in turn, facilitates a deeper understanding of the language and promotes independent learning.

While lexicography—the art and craft of dictionary-making—provides the theoretical foundation for dictionary compilation [6], the practical use of dictionaries in language learning is evident in their daily use by learners. Lexicography, as defined by Ref. [7], include both the professional practice of creating dictionaries and the academic study of these reference works. However, this paper focuses specifically on how dictionaries are used by EFL learners, rather than on the broader field of lexicography.

In the learning context, learning vocabulary is one of the important challenges that learners encounter in the process of foreign language learning. Vocabulary is a critical component in any language learning activity, and inadequate vocabulary knowledge often results in difficulties in the usage of the foreign language [8]. Using dictionaries significantly facilitates vocabulary learning, and the advent of electronic dictionaries has introduced a valuable and appreciated resource for this purpose [9]. Research indicates that electronic dictionaries have proved to be a substantial aid to students in learning new vocabulary, providing an engaging and enjoyable tool for use [8].

Hence, understanding students' attitudes toward dictionaries is vital for educators and policymakers who aim to improve language learning strategies and curriculum development. In Jordan, a Middle Eastern country enriched with a rich linguistic and cultural history, an examination of school students' attitudes toward dictionaries offers valuable insights into these tools' role in language learning and education.

1.1. Statement of the problem

Despite the integral role that dictionaries play in language learning, there is a noticeable gap in research regarding how students perceive and use these tools, especially in the understudied educational context of Jordan. While numerous studies have explored dictionary use among EFL learners globally (e.g., Refs. [10,11]), there is limited empirical evidence focusing on the attitudes and usage patterns of students in the Middle Eastern context, particularly in Jordan.

Most existing studies tend to concentrate on the effectiveness of paper-based versus digital dictionaries [12,13]. Very few, however, have investigated how school-aged students in non-Western contexts use dictionaries as part of their learning process. This lack of research is problematic since the landscape of language learning resources is rapidly evolving, moving from traditional paper-based dictionaries to digital and online equivalents.

Understanding the specific attitudes, preferences, and usage patterns of Jordanian school students towards different types of dictionaries can fill this gap and provide valuable insights into the educational needs and challenges faced by learners in this region. Such insights are crucial for developing effective teaching strategies and curriculum enhancements that align with the evolving needs of students in Jordan, ultimately enriching their language learning experience. By addressing these gaps, this study aims to contribute to the broader field of EFL education and provide a foundation for future research in similar contexts.

1.2. Significance of the study

Understanding the attitudes of Jordanian school students toward dictionaries can contribute to the improvement of language education strategies. By identifying preferences and challenges, educators can adapt their teaching methods to better align with students' needs, fostering a more effective and engaging learning environment. The findings of the study can inform curriculum developers and policymakers about the role of dictionaries in the Jordanian educational context. This knowledge can guide the integration of dictionaries into language curricula, ensuring that they serve as effective tools for language acquisition rather than being perceived as obstacles. In addition, the study can be valuable for teacher training programs. Educators can benefit from understanding how their encouragement or discouragement of dictionary use may impact students. Training programs can incorporate best practices for integrating dictionaries into classroom activities and supporting students in developing effective language learning habits.

1.3. Research questions

The aim of this study is to investigate the attitudes and perceptions of Jordanian school students regarding the use of dictionaries in their language learning. It seeks to identify the factors that influence students' attitudes toward dictionaries, examine their preferences for different types of dictionaries, and understand the challenges students face while using their dictionaries. More specifically, this study is an attempt to answer the following research questions.

• 1.What are the preferred types of dictionaries among Jordanian school students, and how do these preferences differ across various groups?
• 2.To what extent do the participants use their dictionaries, and for which specific academic tasks are these dictionaries employed?
• 3.Which dictionary entry components are most frequently consulted, and which are the least accessed by the students?

These research questions aim to delve into the various aspects of Jordanian school students' perspectives on dictionaries, in addition to the challenges they encounter. The answers will offer a comprehensive understanding of dictionaries' role in language acquisition and provide useful insights for educators, policymakers, and curriculum designers in Jordan.

2. Background information

2.1. Linguistic landscape of Jordan

Jordan is known for its multilingual environment, where Arabic serves as the official language. However, English is widely taught and used in educational settings, and there is a growing emphasis on bilingual education. This linguistic diversity presents a unique context for studying students' attitudes toward dictionaries, as learners navigate between Arabic and English in their academic studies.

2.2. Dictionaries in the context of learning

Introducing dictionaries as reference books to students in primary and secondary education and teaching them how to ascertain word meanings and understand the roles of different word types could help inculcate a lifelong habit of dictionary usage [14]. Moreover, fostering student interest in dictionary use and instilling a positive attitude towards it should be integral to educational goals. There have been reports that untrained users are not able to actively utilize dictionaries and only use them to find specific word meanings when necessary [15]. Cultivating a positive attitude towards dictionary use is crucial for optimizing this resource.

Dictionary use directly influences the vocabulary development of students, thereby impacting the effective use of language skills. Therefore, encouraging students to adopt a positive attitude towards dictionary use and take pleasure in its usage is vital [14]. The competency in locating a word easily when referred to in a dictionary plays a critical role in this skill's acquisition. Moreover, any preconceived notion that carrying a dictionary is difficult or that it cannot be used everywhere should be dispelled. Students ought to be directed towards dictionaries that are portable and easy to handle. Encouraging students to use grade-appropriate dictionaries, providing instructions on how to use these tools, highlighting their multifaceted benefits, such as spelling and etymological information in addition to word meanings, and incorporating both printed and digital dictionaries in vocabulary activities can bolster positive attitudes towards these resources [14]. With the advent of digital learning, a vital educational and societal model in today's world, students are increasingly using digital tools effectively for research, learning, communication, and information sharing [16,17].

2.3. Previous studies

The study of [18] argues that different dictionary users have varying needs; thus, before designing a dictionary, compilers must analyze the needs of the group. Several studies have been conducted to explore the attitudes, preferences, practices, and needs of particular groups of dictionary users. One such study investigated the attitudes of Sudanese English major students towards pedagogical dictionaries. Based on [19], a questionnaire was used to examine the perceptions and practices of 160 Sudanese English learners. The results indicated that students understand the importance of dictionaries in language learning. In addition, the students seemed to favor electronic bilingual dictionaries due to their easy accessibility. However, the use of dictionaries among this group was infrequent, and the students lacked dictionary skills, mainly because dictionary usage is not part of the Sudanese university syllabus.

[20] conducted a study examining the preferences and practices of Cantonese ESL learners regarding bilingualized dictionaries or monolingual dictionaries. A questionnaire was completed by 160 university English majors in Hong Kong, and fourteen of these participants were interviewed. The results indicated that some learners held the belief that bilingualized dictionaries were missing certain information, such as examples, definitions or usage information, unlike monolingual dictionaries. To overcome certain dictionary-associated issues and disadvantages, the study suggested that learners utilize both types of dictionaries. The study also recommended that bilingualized dictionary compilers should incorporate special features to attract users.

[21] conducted a thorough examination of English major students' perspectives on the impact of using electronic dictionaries and student-created dictionaries on pronunciation and vocabulary usage. This study adopted both quantitative and qualitative research methods. Seventy-three students at Jouf University, KSA, were tested with a focus on pronunciation and vocabulary usage. They then completed two questionnaires about their perceptions. The findings indicated that the use of these dictionaries improved pronunciation and vocabulary abilities. The participants also expressed their willingness to use both resources for learning vocabulary. For the students, the electronic dictionary offered the advantage of speed in accessing information and ease of pronunciation access. Conversely, the benefits of student-created dictionaries included longer retention and internalization of vocabulary. Participants also faced difficulties in locating the definition of certain words and dealing with some technical issues. They also found that creating student dictionaries can be time-consuming.

The purpose of the causal-comparative mixed-method study conducted by Ref. [22] was to investigate and compare the perspectives of Saudi EFL female students regarding the use of e-dictionaries to enhance vocabulary learning in two distinct academic programs at Taibah University: the Language Department (ELD) and the Preparatory Year Program (PYP). The study involved 143 fourth-year students from the ELD and 152 students from the PYP who volunteered to participate. Data were collected using a 3-point Likert scale questionnaire and an open-ended question, which received 38 responses. The descriptive statistics indicated that both ELD and PYP EFL female students recognized the advantages of e-dictionaries, particularly in terms of speed, time efficiency, and accurate translation between L2 and L1. However, the findings also revealed differences in specific perceived benefits: PYP students reported greater agreement on the utility of e-dictionaries for verifying vocabulary meanings, understanding synonyms, providing extensive definitions and examples, and acquiring accurate pronunciation. In contrast, ELD students expressed a stronger appreciation for the benefits of e-dictionaries in demonstrating grammatical usage and enhancing vocabulary recall and retention. Further statistical analysis using the Mann-Whitney U test showed that PYP students significantly outperformed ELD students in their use of e-dictionaries for vocabulary learning. Additionally, the responses to the open-ended question indicated a preference among EFL students for using “Google Translation” and mobile applications over traditional paper dictionaries as alternative vocabulary learning tools.

In the same vein, the study conducted by Ref. [2] aimed to investigate Chinese EFL learners' acceptance of three types of mobile dictionaries (MDs): monolingual, bilingualised, and bilingual. The study involved 125 participants who use mobile dictionaries across various English learning contexts, particularly in reading comprehension and vocabulary acquisition. Drawing on the Technology Acceptance Model and the mobile technology evaluation framework, the study's questionnaire focused on three primary constructs: (1) perceived ease of use, (2) perceived usefulness, and (3) behavioral intention to use. The analysis revealed that participants in the bilingualised MD group reported the most favorable perceptions, notably more positive than those in the bilingual MD group. To further understand the factors influencing these perceptions, semi-structured group interviews were conducted with 101 participants. The study identified several factors affecting learner acceptance of mobile dictionaries, ranging from micro-level personal preferences to macro-level contextual influences.

In terms of Jordanian research, a few studies have been conducted. For example [23], examined the dictionary use of fifty Jordanian English university students while reading a linguistics text. They collected data through dictionary use records and interviews. The results showed that students did not tend to use other strategies before looking up meanings in dictionaries and primarily used the dictionary to determine the meaning and pronunciation of general words. The students also found the monolingual dictionary to be more useful and used it more frequently.

In addition [24], examined the dictionary use and preferences of translation university students within their translation courses. The study aimed to investigate the students' attitudes toward using dictionaries as a primary tool in the translation process. The findings indicated that the participants generally reported familiarity with both online and print dictionaries in their translation tasks and lessons. Furthermore, the results showed a strong preference among the majority of students for using online dictionaries, citing their speed and ease of use in looking up unfamiliar or challenging words. The analysis also revealed that most participants had a positive attitude toward utilizing various types of dictionaries, recognizing their utility in completing different translation tasks. Based on the findings, the study recommended that students receive adequate training and practice in using both online and print dictionaries. Additionally, it suggested that students be encouraged to rely on contextual clues to infer the meanings of new words before consulting dictionaries.

From the above-reviewed studies, it becomes evident that there are no recent investigations conducted in this field that take into account the influence of technology and the various types of dictionaries currently available. Moreover, most studies have focused on university students majoring in English, leaving a gap in research related to school students. As school students are increasingly becoming more autonomous learners who rely on self-directed learning, it is worth examining their attitudes towards dictionaries, and this is particularly relevant in the under-researched context of Jordan.

3. Methodology

To achieve the objectives of this study, a questionnaire was designed and distributed among 64 middle school students, specifically eighth, ninth, and tenth graders, whose first language is Arabic and who are studying at three different schools. These grade levels were chosen because students in these grades begin to become autonomous learners of English. At this stage, their English materials are considered difficult and advanced, leading them to use dictionaries more frequently.

The sample of school students was selected using a stratified random sampling technique. This method was chosen to ensure that the sample was representative of the broader student population, thereby enhancing the generalizability of the findings. Stratified sampling involved dividing the population into subgroups (strata) based on specific factors such as gender, socio-economic background, and academic performance. From each subgroup, participants were randomly selected. This approach ensured that the sample reflected the diversity of the student population, allowing for a more comprehensive analysis of dictionary use across different demographics.

The students were provided with clear instructions regarding the study's purpose and were informed about the voluntary nature of their participation. Informed consent was obtained from both the students and their parents or guardians before the questionnaire was distributed. The questionnaire comprised a mix of closed-ended and Likert-scale questions, addressing various aspects such as reasons for preferring one type of dictionary over another, the frequency of dictionary use, and the activities for which the dictionary was consulted. For further details, refer to Appendix 1, where a translation of the questionnaire is provided. Ethical considerations, including confidentiality and data protection, were carefully observed throughout the research process. Ethical clearance in this study has been approved. Approval has been sought and granted by Quality Assurance Committee at the School of Foreign Languages with reference number (1/October 25, 2023).

4. Results

Based on the participants’ answers to the questionnaire, below is a comprehensive analysis of the attitudes of Jordanian school students toward dictionaries, highlighting key findings and trends that emerged from the data. The analysis provides key findings and trends evident from the gathered data. The results also offer insights into aspects such as the frequency of dictionary usage, preferences for certain types of dictionaries, perceived advantages, and possible challenges, all of which shape the students' perspectives. Subsequent sections delve into a more detailed examination of the data, shedding light on various aspects of the participants' experiences and attitudes.

4.1. Electronic versus paper dictionary usage

Concerning the first item on the questionnaire, students were queried about the type of dictionary they use most frequently – either electronic or paper-based. They were also prompted to explain why they preferred one type over the other. The findings revealed that a majority of the students favored using an electronic dictionary over a paper one (Table 1 and Fig. 1). Fifty percent of the students exclusively used an electronic dictionary while only slightly over three percent (3.12 %) solely relied on the paper version, and about forty-seven percent utilized both. This indicates that approximately ninety-seven percent of the students resort to using an electronic dictionary, reflecting the fast-paced era and the significant role of technology in contemporary times.

Table 1.

Electronic versus Paper Dictionary use.

Electronic Dictionary	%	Paper Dictionary	%	Both Dictionaries	%
16	50 %	1	3.12 %	15	46.87 %

Fig. 1.

Visual representation of the percentages of electronic versus paper dictionary usage.

The participants provided several reasons for their preference of one type of dictionary over the other (Table 2). Some students believe that an electronic dictionary is more accurate, contains general and specific meanings in different contexts (9.37 %), and provides more information (3.12 %). Others view it as a cost-effective or even free alternative (6.25 %) and appreciate its accessibility at anytime and anywhere (3.12 %). Most participants find that an electronic dictionary is easier to use (40.62 %) and timesaving (21.87 %). Additionally, around 3 % think that this type of dictionary provides an entertaining experience. On the other hand, paper dictionaries are perceived to offer advantages such as better retention, higher accuracy, and being healthier for the eyes. These beliefs might be anchored in their personal experiences or could be influenced by their teachers' attitudes.

Table 2.

Reasons for preferring one type of dictionaries over the other.

Reasons	Electronic Dictionary (%)	Paper Dictionary (%)
1. More accurate 2. Entertaining 3. Easier 4. To save time 5. Cheaper/free 6. Accessible 7. More information 8. Healthier 9. Longer retention 10. Other reasons	9.37 3.12 40.62 21.875 6.25 3.12 3.12 0 0 6.25	3.12 0 0 0 0 0 0 3.12 3.12 3.12

4.2. Monolingual versus bilingual dictionaries

When comparing the use of monolingual and bilingual dictionaries, the findings indicate that Jordanian school students consult bilingual dictionaries more frequently than monolingual ones (Table 3). Seventy-eight percent of the students asserted that they use bilingual dictionaries, while roughly nineteen percent answered that they only use monolingual dictionaries, and about three percent of the sample use both. This tendency can be attributed to the reasoning provided by approximately twenty-two percent (21.87 %) of the students who find bilingual English-Arabic dictionaries easier to use than monolingual English dictionaries. They appreciate that once they understand the meaning in Arabic, i.e., their language, they do not need to contemplate which interpretation among many is the most suitable for a particular word in a specific context.

Table 3.

Monolingual versus bilingual dictionary use.

Monolingual	Bilingual	Both
18.75 %	78.12 %	3.12 %

Alternatively, some students believe that the monolingual dictionary is superior. These students posit that using an English-to-English dictionary is beneficial in expanding their foreign language vocabulary. Hence, learning English through English is viewed as an effective strategy for language acquisition.

4.3. Dictionary consultation

The questionnaire results reveal that a majority of students use a dictionary weekly (25 %), followed by around twenty two percent who consult a dictionary every two days. About 9.37 % use a dictionary daily, and finally, 6.25 % consult a dictionary once a year (See Table 4 and Fig. 2). The participants use the dictionary for both encoding and decoding language activities. According to Table 5, the task for which students most often consult dictionaries is speaking (34.37 %), followed by reading (25 %), listening (21.87 %), and finally writing (12.5 %). This finding might stem from the fact that writing is the least emphasized skill in Jordanian schools, possibly because teachers themselves may lack proficiency in this area.

Table 4.

Frequency of dictionary consultation.

Frequency of dictionary consultation
Every day	Every two days	Every week	Every month	Once a year
9.37 %	21.87 %	25 %	15.62 %	6.25 %

Fig. 2.

Percentage distribution of dictionary consultation frequency.

Table 5.

Activities for consulting a dictionary.

Task	Frequency (%)
Listening	21.87
Speaking	34.37
Reading	25
Writing	12.5

When asking the students about the sections they most frequently consult in a dictionary, the results revealed that they predominantly search for pronunciation, aligning with the earlier result that dictionaries are most frequently used in connection with the speaking skill (43.37 %). Based on the students' responses, codes or abbreviations and information on parts of speech are the least examined (3.21). Students equally sought information on spelling and various meanings of a word. They also answer that they look for details on synonyms and definitions, and finally, examples (Table 6).

Table 6.

The search frequency for part of dictionary.

Part of a dictionary	%
1. Information on spelling	18.75
2. Information on pronunciations	34.37
3. Examples	6.25
4. Information on synonyms	9.37
5. Information on antonyms	0
6. Information on parts of speech	3.12
7. Definitions	9.37
8. Different meanings of a word	18.75
9. Information on etymology	0
10. Codes/abbreviations	3.21

4.4. Problems and difficulties of electronic and paper dictionary

This table outlines the various problems or challenges that students encounter when using dictionaries. Some of the highlighted issues include encountering meanings that are more complicated than the words themselves, excessively long explanations, the absence of certain words in the dictionary, and difficulties in choosing among differing meanings for a single word. Also included are problems related to lack of dictionary-use skills, financial constraints preventing the purchase of a dictionary, and the expenditure of excessive time to obtain necessary information. Lack of appealing features such as pictures, graphs, or gestures, absence of pronunciations, and perception of the dictionary as boring have also been listed as issues. One problem pointed out is the omission of some meanings for a word in the dictionary. Interestingly, a category for students who face no challenges at all when using dictionaries is also included. Please see Table 7 below for percentages.

Table 7.

Problems and difficulties using dictionaries.

Problems	Electronic Dictionary	Paper Dictionary
1. The meaning is more difficult than the word	12.5	6.35
2. The meaning is too long	18.75	21.87
3. The word is not in the dictionary	18.75	25
4. It is difficult to choose among different meanings	15.62	37.3
5. I lack the skill of using the dictionary	12.5	9.37
6. I do not have money to buy a dictionary	3.12	12.5
7. I have to spend more time to get the information I need	6.35	15.62
8. There are no special features such as pictures, graphs or gestures to attract attention	6.35	12.5
9. No pronunciation is provided	6.35	12.5
10. The dictionary is boring	3.12	6.35
11. Not all meanings of a word are included		3.12
12. I have no problems	18.75
Total

The most frequently selected challenges that students face when using electronic dictionaries are lengthy meanings (18.75 %) and omission of certain words in the dictionary. This is followed by difficulty in choosing among different meanings, meanings being more intricate than the words themselves, lacking the skill to use the dictionary, the need to spend additional time to obtain required information, lack of appealing features such as pictures, graphs or gestures, lack of pronunciations, and finally, inability to afford a dictionary. None of the students chose 'Not all meanings of a word are included' as an issue.

Regarding paper dictionaries, students encountered more issues, which were chosen more frequently. The most common problem was 'Difficulty in choosing among different meanings' (37.3 %). 'Not all of the meanings of a word are included' was the least selected option (3.12 %). The other problems, listed in descending order of frequency, were 'The word is not in the dictionary', 'The meaning is too long', 'I have to spend more time to get the information I need', 'I do not have money to buy a dictionary', 'There are no special features such as pictures, graphs or gestures to attract attention', 'No pronunciations', 'I lack the skill of using the dictionary', 'The meaning is more difficult than the word' and 'The dictionary is boring'.

The numerous difficulties that school students experience may stem from the limited or lack of training in dictionary use provided in Jordanian schools, likely due to educators' lack of awareness of the importance of this learning tool.

4.5. Pictorial illustrations

Table 8 below provides insights into the frequency of searching for pictures among the participants. Notably, the majority of participants indicated a low frequency of searching for pictures, with 46.87 % reporting “Rarely” and 3.12 % reporting “Never.” This suggests that, within this sample, a significant portion of individuals does not frequently engage in the activity of searching for pictures.

Table 8.

Frequency of searching for pictures.

Always	Often	Sometimes	Rarely	Never
3.12 %	12.5 %	21.87 %	46.87 %	3.12 %

Table 9 delves into the perceived importance of pictures, presenting the degree of agreement among participants. The data shows that a substantial percentage, 31.25 %, “Strongly agree” on the importance of pictures. Additionally, 18.75 % “Agree,” indicating a combined majority that recognizes the significance of pictures in some capacity. On the other hand, 6.25 % each “Disagree” and “Strongly disagree,” providing insights into a portion of participants who may not find pictures as crucial in their context.

Table 9.

The importance of pictures.

Degree of agreement
Strongly agree	Agree	No opinion	Disagree	Strongly disagree
31.25	18.75 %	15.62 %	6.25	6.25

Based on the results presented above, the findings suggest a noteworthy variation in the engagement with and opinions about the role, types, and challenges of using dictionaries. The following section discusses the results of this study.

5. Discussion

Based on the findings above, the study revealed a clear preference among Jordanian school students for electronic dictionaries over electronic ones. Most students use electronic dictionaries due to their perceived accuracy, ease of use, and convenience. Electronic dictionaries are favored for their ability to provide quick and comprehensive information, making them a popular choice among students. Conversely, paper dictionaries are valued for their benefits in retention and eye health, though they are less frequently used.

When comparing monolingual and bilingual dictionaries, students showed a stronger inclination towards bilingual dictionaries, finding them more user-friendly and helpful in understanding meanings in their native language. Students typically use dictionaries for speaking and reading tasks, with pronunciation being the most sought-after feature. Common challenges with dictionary use include lengthy or missing entries and issues with interpreting multiple meanings. Despite some students occasionally engaging with pictorial content, the overall recognition of the value of pictures in dictionaries varies, with a portion of students acknowledging their importance.

In particular, the findings regarding the types of dictionaries preferred by Jordanian school students provide valuable insights into the evolving landscape of language resources. The overwhelming preference for electronic dictionaries, as indicated by 97 % of the respondents, underscores the pervasive influence of technology in the contemporary learning environment. This shift may be attributed to factors such as accessibility, efficiency, and the perceived richness of information provided by electronic dictionaries. Noteworthy is the 3.12 % of students who exclusively use paper dictionaries, suggesting a diverse range of preferences influenced by factors like accuracy, retention, and the perceived health benefits associated with traditional printed materials.

The reasons provided by participants for their dictionary preferences offer an understanding of the decision-making process. Electronic dictionaries are praised for their accuracy, ease of use, time-saving features, and accessibility, aligning with the demands of a fast-paced era. On the contrary, paper dictionaries are associated with advantages such as longer retention and perceived health benefits, reflecting a blend of practical and subjective considerations. It is interesting to note that some students find electronic dictionaries entertaining, showcasing the multifaceted nature of their appeal. Consequently, the widespread of electronic dictionary usage may impact the efficiency with which students tackle academic tasks.

The results also compared between the use of monolingual and bilingual dictionaries. The data suggest a clear preference among Jordanian school students for bilingual dictionaries, with 78.12 % of respondents stating they primarily use this type of dictionary. By contrast, only 18.75 % of students regularly use monolingual dictionaries, and a small portion (3.12 %) uses both. This overwhelming preference for bilingual dictionaries could be attributed to the ease of use as students feel more comfortable translating to and from their native language, Arabic. This is further supported by 21.87 % of the students asserting that they find bilingual English-Arabic dictionaries simpler to use than monolingual English dictionaries. However, some students preferred monolingual dictionaries, indicating that the use of an English-to-English dictionary aids in enhancing their English language vocabulary. This suggests that a language immersion approach, which is represented here by the exclusive use of English in the dictionary, could be an effective language learning strategy for some learners.

Regarding the frequency of dictionary consultation, most students appear to use dictionaries on a weekly basis (25 %), with some resorting to them every two days (22 %), daily (9.37 %), or even just once a year (6.25 %). Dictionaries are used for both encoding and decoding language activities, with speaking being reported as the activity for which dictionaries are most often consulted (34.37 %), followed by reading (25 %), listening (21.87 %), and writing (12.5 %). The infrequent use of dictionaries during writing tasks can be justified by the nature of the writing process, which often prioritizes creativity, coherence, and continuity over immediate lexical accuracy. Additionally, individual proficiency and the strategic timing of dictionary consultations may contribute to the observed low frequency in this particular language skill. This lack of emphasis on writing skills suggests potential areas for improvement in the instruction and integration of dictionary use within the classroom, especially if teachers can leverage the students' evident preference for bilingual dictionaries as a tool to enhance their vocabulary usage across all language activities, explicitly writing (see Ref. [25]).

Additionally, the preference for pronunciation-related information aligns with the high frequency of dictionary use in connection with the speaking skill. Additionally, the breakdown of the search frequency for different parts of a dictionary provides a various understanding of students' priorities. Pronunciations and information on spelling are looked for more frequently, while information on antonyms and etymology is less explored.

With regard to the problems and difficulties associated with using dictionaries, lengthy meanings, difficulty in choosing among different meanings, and words not being in the dictionary are common issues for both types. Interestingly, the paper dictionary presents more challenges, with difficulty in choosing among different meanings being the most significant problem. Lack of special features, pronunciations, and financial constraints also contribute to the difficulties encountered. The variation in challenges may be attributed to factors such as the format of the dictionaries, students' familiarity with technology, and the overall educational environment. It is notable that some students reported having no problems, suggesting that a portion of the students face no challenges when using dictionaries.

The results on the importance of pictorial illustrations reveals that a significant portion of students rarely or never searches for pictures when consulting dictionaries. This might indicate that, within the given sample, pictures are not considered a crucial element in dictionary use. However, a different perspective on the perceived importance of pictures was noted: while a substantial percentage strongly agrees on their importance, a notable portion disagrees or strongly disagrees. This discrepancy highlights the diverse attitudes among students regarding the significance of pictorial illustrations in dictionaries.

Overall, the contribution of this study lies in its comprehensive analysis of Jordanian school students' dictionary usage and preferences, providing valuable insights into how different types of dictionaries are used in educational contexts. Specifically, the study highlights the significant preference for electronic over paper dictionaries and bilingual over monolingual dictionaries, reflecting the impact of technological advancements and bilingual support on students' learning processes.

Additionally, the study sheds light on the frequency and purpose of dictionary use, revealing that students primarily consult dictionaries for speaking and reading tasks. It identifies common challenges faced with both electronic and paper dictionaries, such as lengthy explanations and missing entries, and explores students' attitudes towards the inclusion of pictorial elements in dictionaries. By offering these insights, the study informs educators and dictionary designers about the needs and preferences of students, ultimately guiding the development of more effective and user-friendly dictionary resources. Furthermore, the findings underscore the importance of integrating practical dictionary training into the curriculum to enhance students' overall language learning experience.

6. Conclusion

This study explored Jordanian school students' attitudes toward dictionaries. After analyzing the participants’ answers on the questionnaire used as the study tool, the findings demonstrate the importance of understanding students' preferences and challenges in using dictionaries, as it directly impacts their language learning experience. Educators and curriculum designers may need to consider these insights when integrating dictionary use into language learning programs. Additionally, addressing the challenges identified, such as the lack of training in dictionary use, could contribute to enhancing students' language skills. Furthermore, the mixed attitudes toward pictorial illustrations suggest that the incorporation of visual elements in dictionaries should be approached with consideration for diverse learner preferences. Some students may benefit greatly from visual aids, while others may prioritize other aspects of dictionary content. In conclusion, these results provide a comprehensive picture of students' dictionary consultation habits, challenges faced, and attitudes toward pictorial illustrations. The study does not merely highlight the dominance of electronic dictionaries but also suggests exploring how this technological shift influences language acquisition, comprehension, and academic success. Moreover, further research and practical interventions could build upon these insights to optimize the use of dictionaries in language education. Finally, the relationship between the type of dictionary preference and social factors, e.g. gender is a study worthy of investigation.

CRediT authorship contribution statement

Imran Alrashdan: Writing – review & editing, Writing – original draft, Resources, Formal analysis, Conceptualization. Lana El-Migdady: Writing – original draft, Resources, Methodology, Investigation, Conceptualization. Abdel Rahman Mitib Altakhaineh: Writing – review & editing, Writing – original draft, Resources, Formal analysis.

Ethics statement

Ethical clearance in this study has been approved. Approval has been sought and granted by Quality Assurance Committee at the School of Foreign Languages with reference number (1/October 25, 2023).

Data available statement

Data will be made available on request.

Declaration of competing interest

The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

Appendix (1).

Dear student, please mark one or more answers that describe your situation. Your answers will be used for scientific research and the development of dictionaries in Jordan and Arab countries for greater effectiveness in teaching the English language.

• 1
  What type of dictionary do you use more?

  • a)
    Paper dictionary
  • b)
    Electronic dictionary
  • c)
    Both

Why do you prefer the paper/electronic dictionary more? …. …. …. …. …. …. …. …. …. …. …. …...

• 2
  I use an ______________ dictionary:

  • a)
    Arabic-English
  • b)
    English-Arabic
  • c)
    English-English
  • d)
    Other, such as …. …. …. …. …. …. …. …. …...

Which do you prefer, using 1 + 2 or the English-English dictionary? Why? …. …. …. …. …. …. …. …. …. …. …. …. …. …. ….

• 3
  What are the problems you face when using a paper dictionary?

  • a)
    The meaning of the word is more challenging than the word itself.
  • b)
    The meaning is too long.
  • c)
    I cannot find the word in the dictionary.
  • d)
    I have difficulty choosing the intended meaning from different meanings.
  • e)
    I don't know how to use the dictionary.
  • f)
    I don't have money to buy the dictionary.
  • g)
    Using the dictionary takes time.
  • h)
    There are no pictures or illustrations.
  • i)
    There are no sounds to read the word.
  • j)
    The electronic dictionary is more enjoyable.
  • k)
    Other, such as …. …. …. …. …. …. …. …. …
• 4
  What are the problems you face when using the electronic dictionary?

  • a)
    The meaning of the word is more challenging than the word itself.
  • b)
    The meaning is too long.
  • c)
    I cannot find the word in the dictionary.
  • d)
    I have difficulty choosing the intended meaning from different meanings.
  • e)
    I don't know how to use the dictionary.
  • f)
    I don't have money to buy the dictionary.
  • g)
    Using the dictionary takes time.
  • h)
    There are no pictures or illustrations.
  • i)
    There are no sounds to read the word.
  • j)
    The paper dictionary is more enjoyable.
  • k)
    Other, such as …. …. …. …. …. …. …. …. …
• 5
  Why do you use the dictionary?

  • a)
    For reading
  • b)
    For writing
  • c)
    For speaking
  • d)
    For listening
• 6
  What do you look for in the dictionary?

  • a)
    Spelling of the word
  • b)
    Pronunciation of the word
  • c)
    Examples of the word
  • d)
    Synonyms of the word
  • e)
    Antonyms of the word
  • f)
    To know the type of the word, noun, verb, adjective, etc.
  • g)
    To find a definition for the word
  • h)
    To know all meanings of the word
  • i)
    For translation purposes
  • j)
    To know the origin of the word
  • k)
    To understand the meanings of abbreviations and symbols
• 7
  Do you search for images or videos to understand the meaning of a word?

  • a)
    Always
  • b)
    Usually
  • c)
    Sometimes
  • d)
    Rarely
• 8.
  The presence of images, videos, and illustrations in dictionaries is important.

  • a)
    Strongly agree
  • b)
    Agree
  • c)
    Neutral
  • d)
    Disagree
  • e)
    Strongly disagree
• 9.
  How often do you use the dictionary?

  • a)
    Every day
  • b)
    Every two days
  • c)
    Every week
  • d)
    Every month
  • e)
    Other: …. …. …. …. …. …. …. …. …. ….

Appendix (2).

School Principal Consent Form for Student Participation in Research (English)

Dear Principal, We are conducting a research study that involves administering a questionnaire to eighth, ninth, and tenth grade students to better understand their dictionary usage while learning English. We request your permission to contact students at your school for research purposes only.

Key Points:

• •Student Participation: Only students from grades 8, 9, and 10 will be contacted for this research. Participation is entirely voluntary.
• •Confidentiality: All student information will remain confidential. No identifying details will be recorded, and the data collected will be used solely for research purposes.
• •Ethical Considerations: The study will follow all ethical guidelines to ensure the well-being of participants. Students can withdraw from the study at any time without facing any negative consequences.

By signing below, you agree to allow the research to be conducted at your school.

• Principal's Name: _________________________

• School Name: ____________________________

• Signature: _______________________________

• Date: ___________________________________

• نموذج موافقة مدير/ة المدرسة على مشاركة الطلاب في البحث (بالعربية)

  • السيد/ة مدير/ة المدرسة المحترم/ة،
  • نحن بصدد إجراء دراسة بحثية تتضمن توزيع استبيان على طلاب الصف الثامن والتاسع والعاشر بهدف دراسة استخدامهم للقواميس أثناء تعلمهم اللغة الإنجليزية. نطلب إذنكم بالتواصل مع الطلاب في مدرستكم لأغراض بحثية فقط.

النقاط الرئيسية.

• •مشاركة الطلاب: سيتم التواصل فقط مع طلاب الصفوف الثامن، والتاسع، والعاشر ضمن هذه الدراسة. المشاركة اختيارية بالكامل.
• •السرية: ستبقى جميع معلومات الطلاب سرية. لن يتم تسجيل أي تفاصيل تعريفية، وسيتم استخدام البيانات المجمعة لأغراض البحث فقط.
• •
  الاعتبارات الأخلاقية: ستتبع الدراسة جميع الإرشادات الأخلاقية لضمان سلامة المشاركين. يمكن للطلاب الانسحاب من الدراسة في أي وقت دون مواجهة أي عواقب سلبية.

  • بتوقيعكم أدناه، فإنكم توافقون على إجراء البحث في مدرستكم.

    • اسم المدير/ة: _______________________________
    • اسم المدرسة: _______________________________
    • التوقيع: _______________________________
    • التاريخ: _______________________________