Table 7.
Studies related to swimming performance.
| Research | Observed Performance Parameters |
|---|---|
| Stager et al., 1984 [65] | BH, BM, FFM, and rLV showed statistically significant correlations |
| Chatard, et al., 1990 [66] | A larger body and a larger surface area will increase drag, associated with a lower running s for a given amount of MP |
| Siders et al., 1993 [67] | Statistically significant relationship between P and BH, % FM, and FFM only in ♀ swimmers. They found higher correlations for the same variables of P and BH, FFM, BW, and ectomorphic and mesomorphic BT |
| Lowensteyn et al., 1994 [68] | Body resistance characteristics could explain the effect of FM variables on ♀ performance |
| Pelayo et al., 1996 [69] | Longitudinal AnthrC, such as BH and length of the UL (arm span) and LL are of paramount importance to achieve high results |
| Strass et al., 1998 [70] | Increased FFM allows more MS to be produced during the sp movement |
| The Bs is influenced by the SMM, the FFM, and the strct relationships between the MTI and ATI | |
| It has been suggested that S parameters are one of the most crucial sp factors that positively influence sw P by increasing the pull force of the stk and improving stk efficiency | |
| Dopsaj et al., 1999 [71] | Significant improvement in BS or sBS (arms/legs/trunk) results in greater max force per stk |
| Nevill, 2000 [72] | Swimmers benefit from having less FM, a longer (but shorter) arm span and a larger forearm circumference with a smaller relaxed arm circumference |
| Mameletzi et al., 2003 [73] | Lower FM probably translates into lower aerodynamic drag (frontal area) and frictional drag. Body contractile BC provides better propulsive force potential |
| Geladas et al., 2005 [74] | Only % FM was the single most important “whole body” size characteristic |
| Barbosa et al., 2006 [75] | An increase in FFM allows more MS to be produced during sp movement efforts |
| Pyne et al., 2006 [76] | MM appears to correlate with a high level of S and propulsion |
| FFM and TBW as absolute indicators of BC as predictors of best P | |
| Brauer et al., 2007 [77] | Current swimmers tend to be taller than in the past |
| Jürimäe et al., 2007 [78] | FM and FFM appear to contribute to swimmers’ performance |
| Barbosa et al., 2010 [79] | The Bs is influenced by the SMM, the FFM, and the strct relationships between the MTI and ATI |
| It has been suggested that S parameters are one of the most crucial sp factors that positively influence sw P by increasing the pull force of the stk and improving stk efficiency | |
| Saavedra et al., 2010 [80] | FM and FFM appear to contribute to swimmers’ P |
| Lätt et al., 2010 [81] | FM and FFM appear to contribute to the P of swimmers |
| Saavedra et al., 2010 [80] | |
| West et al., 2011 [82] | Increased FFM allows more MS to be produced during sp movement efforts |
| Kjendle et al., 2011 [83] | AnthrC, such as BH and length of the UPL (arm span) and LL are of primary importance to achieve high results |
| Pérez et al., 2011 [84] | P was apparently not helped by the large MM values |
| West, et al., 2011 [82] | Increasing muscle or FFM allows more MS to be produced during sp movement efforts |
| Zuniga et al., 2011 [85] | AnthrC, including FM (%), as important predictors of P |
| The %BF was the most important size characteristic | |
| Morouço et al., 2011 [86] | Significant improvement in sBS (arms, legs, or trunk) results in greater max force per stk |
| Morouço et al., 2011 [86] Morouço et al., 2012 [87] |
The Bs is influenced by the SMM, the FFM, and the strct relationships between the MTI and ATI |
| It has been suggested that S parameters are one of the most significant sp factors that positively influence sw P by increasing the pulling force of the stk and improving stk efficiency | |
| Morouço et al., 2012 [87] | Significant improvement in segmental BS (arms/legs/trunk) results in greater max force per stk |
| Ratamess et al., 2012 [88] | Reducing FM contributes to muscular and CE, as well as to the development of s and agility |
| Santos et al., 2014 [89] | International swimmers, both ♂ and ♀, are taller, with less FM, lower BMI, but with a higher level of MM than national level swimmers |
| Copic et al., 2014 [90] | Increased FFM produces more MS, which improves s, quickness, acceleration, and agility |
| Moura et al., 2014 [91] | sw P was apparently not helped by large MM values because they were likely to reduce buoyancy and impair P |
| Gatta et al., 2015 [92] | The effect of FM variables on swimmers’ performance could be explained by body resistance |
| Bond et al., 2015 [93] | AnthrC, including FM (%), as important predictors of sw P, although only FM% was the most important |
| Nasirzade et al., 2015 [94] | Significant relationship between muscle architectural characteristics; muscle thickness, and triceps brachii fascicle length |
| Nevill et al., 2015 [95] | FFM was the single most important characteristic associated with sw s |
| sw P is associated with changes in size, proportions and BC, as well as biological maturation | |
| Increased MM improves s P | |
| Gatta et al., 2016 [96] | The Bs is influenced by the SMM, the FFM, and the strct relationships between the MTI and ATI |
| It has been proposed that through mechanisms of increased stk pull and stk efficiency mechanisms, sw P is positively influenced | |
| Roelofs et al., 2017 [97] | Identifying the optimal balance between body characteristics: FFM and FM parameters are likely to be beneficial and of some importance in maximising sw P |
| The Bs is influenced by the SMM, the FFM, and the strct relationships between the MTI and ATI | |
| It has been suggested that S parameters are one of the key factors that positively influence sw P by increasing the pull force of the stk and improving stk efficiency | |
| Reducing FM contributes to muscular and CE, as well as to the development of s and agility | |
| FFM appears to be logically correlated with a high level of S and propulsion | |
| Morais et al., 2017 [98] | AnthrC play a crucial role in talent identification and development, as well as in sw P |
| Sammoud et al., 2019 [99] | AnthrC are important factors in identifying developing talent, as well as an influence on sw P |
| Morales et al., 2019 [100] | AnthrC, such as BH and length of the UL (arm span) and LL are of primary importance to achieve high results |
| The importance of AnthrC in sw, the increase in swimmers’ s, the result of the increase in stk length and stk rate | |
| Cortesi et al., 2020 [101] | The max sw s will be reached by the swimmer who can achieve the highest max metabolic power with the lowest energy consumption during the swim |
| Dopsaj et al., 2020 [102] | Today’s elite, both ♂ and ♀ swimmers are taller, heavier, and bigger than in the past |
| Cortesi et al., 2020 [101] | The reduction of FM contributes to muscular and CE |
| The effect of FM on performance in female swimmers could be explained by body resistance | |
| Dos Santos et al., 2021 [103] | Height and BM did not contribute significantly to the study of variation in anatomical and physiological dimensions in swimmers |
| Espada et al., 2023 [104] | The body segments (LL, UL, and trunk) and the corresponding tissue content (TM, FM, and FFM+BMC) reinforce the importance of BC assessment in sw |
AnthrC: anthropometric characteristics; ATI: adipose tissue indices; BC: body composition; BH: body height; BM: body mass; BMC: bone mineral content; BMI: body mass index; BS: body strength; Bs: body structure; BT: body type; BW: body weight; CE: cardiorespiratory endurance; FFM: fat-free mass; FM: fat mass; LL: lower limbs; MM: muscle mass; MP: mechanical power; MS: muscle strength; MTI: muscle tissue indices; P: performance; rLV: residual lung volume; s: speed; S: strength; sBS: segmental body strength; SMM: skeletal muscle mass; sp: specific; stk: stroke; strct: structural; sw: swimming; TM: total mass; UL: upper limbs.