Factors influencing sustainable development in Eco-tourism settlements: A comparative analysis

Abstract

This study examined the determinants of sustainable development within national parks and ecotourism settlements across both Tajik National Park and Fann Mountains areas in the Republic of Tajikistan, as well as Zaamin National Park and Hisar State Reserve in the Republic of Uzbekistan. Primary data were gathered from surveys conducted in four distinct settlements across these nations, and subsequent analyses employed descriptive statistics, factor analysis, and Analysis of Variance (ANOVA). The levels of sustainable development varied among the four settlements. The following factors were the most important for sustainable development: active engagement from local authorities and the population, high levels of tourist satisfaction, and attractive sights. The findings of this study have important implications for policymakers and stakeholders involved in the development of national parks and ecotourism settlements in Tajikistan and Uzbekistan. The findings suggest that the following strategies are most effective in promoting sustainable development: encouraging active engagement from local authorities and the population, providing high-quality services to tourists, and protecting the environment.

1. Introduction

National parks and reserves are important for safeguarding and presenting a nation's natural and cultural heritage. They provide various benefits such as conserving biodiversity, protecting ecosystems, providing recreational opportunities, promoting sustainable tourism, and boosting local economies [1]. However, their effective management requires the engagement of a wide range of stakeholders, including local communities, non-governmental organizations (NGOs), governmental agencies, and tourists. Stakeholder engagement involves people and organizations interested in a particular issue or decision [2]. Effective stakeholder engagement is crucial for managing national parks and reserves, as it facilitates identifying and addressing diverse stakeholder needs, fostering consensus on management goals and strategies, enhancing support for conservation initiatives, improving natural resource management, and mitigating the adverse impacts of tourism [3].

Studies have shown that stakeholder engagement effectively conserves natural and cultural resources while promoting sustainable tourism. However, there is still a need for a greater understanding of the best practices for engaging stakeholders in the context of national parks and reserves [4]. This study aims to bridge this gap by investigating stakeholder engagement practices within Tajikistan and Uzbekistan's national parks and reserves, specifically focusing on addressing the following research questions: identifying the pivotal challenges tied to stakeholder engagement in these conservation areas, delineating optimal strategies for effectively engaging stakeholders in these unique settings, and elucidating the role of stakeholder engagement in fostering sustainable development across national parks and reserves [5,6].

This study is important because it is the first to examine stakeholder engagement practices in the national parks and reserves of Tajikistan and Uzbekistan. Our findings provide valuable insights for park managers and stakeholders in countries interested in promoting sustainable development [7,8]. One key challenge to stakeholder engagement in national parks and reserves in Tajikistan and Uzbekistan is the need for greater trust and communication between stakeholders. This is particularly true in Tajikistan, which has a history of conflict and mistrust among its different groups [9]. In Uzbekistan, there is also a strong tradition of centralized power, which may make it difficult for the voices of those with less power to be heard [10].

An additional impediment to stakeholder engagement in the national parks and reserves of Tajikistan and Uzbekistan emerges from cultural disparities among stakeholders. Given the mosaic of ethnic groups in these nations, each possessing distinct cultural norms and practices, it poses complexities in comprehending and catering to the multifaceted needs of all stakeholders [10]. Finally, more resources are required to support stakeholder engagement efforts in Tajikistan and Uzbekistan. Both countries have limited funding for conservation and development projects [11,12]. Despite these impediments, many effective methodologies exist that facilitate stakeholder engagement in the national parks and reserves in Tajikistan and Uzbekistan.

By meaningfully engaging stakeholders, park managers can create a more sustainable future for the national parks and reserves in Tajikistan and Uzbekistan [13,14]. Within this intricate framework, our investigation delves deeply into the multifaceted intricacies of stakeholder engagement within national parks and reserves, particularly in Tajikistan and Uzbekistan. Our approach is twofold: first, to shed light on effective strategies underpinning conservation efforts and sustainable development models, all contextualized by dynamic stakeholder interactions; and second, to unravel the challenges inherent in the governance of these protected areas [15]. With a focus on ecological stewardship, cultural heritage preservation, and the ever-evolving dynamics between park authorities and local enclaves, we endeavor to curate a corpus of insights that will burgeon the reservoir of knowledge, primed to invigorate the praxis of protected area management, coalescent stakeholder synergies, and the sustenance of sustainable development within these entwined landscapes [8].

2. Literature review

2.1. Leadership's role in sustainable settlement development

The pivotal role of leadership in shaping sustainable development is not well understood, particularly in Central Asian countries such as Tajikistan and Uzbekistan. However, recent studies challenge the view that leadership influence is a top-down process that resides exclusively within governmental structures. Several papers have underscored the vital roles that local actors, communities, and civil society organizations play in sustainable development.

Sociocultural and environmental factors heighten the complexity of leadership influence in this region and have been explored in depth by researchers such as Squires in his work on evolving institutional dynamics and Sedik in his analysis of Tajikistan's post-independence agricultural trajectory [16,17]. Along with these governmental influences, Wichaisri's study of rural communities emphasizes the importance of local actors and non-governmental organizations in sustainable development [18]. Similarly, Islar's examination of community-based renewable energy projects in Nepal illustrated the limits of top-down development and the need for active local community participation [19].

Leadership influence permeates all levels, ranging from national policies to regional strategies. Smith (2006) underscored how national leaders' decisions reflect international commitment and adherence to global sustainability standards [20]. However, Dodman's (2008), who studied the role of local governments in sustainable development, highlighted the crucial importance of local governments in providing essential services and supporting community-based initiatives [21]. Sharpley's intricate balance between central governance and regional autonomy has been studied in various contexts, revealing a delicate interplay that demands a deep understanding of the macro- and micro-level dynamics [22]. As Dola argued, this balance must also consider the power of participation and civil society's influence in shaping equitable and sustainable development [23].

Emphasizing inclusive leadership, as emphasized by Shah and Atiqul, can create a more sustainable and adaptable development strategy, fostering growth without compromising unique regional characteristics [24]. This perspective aligns with the broader understanding that sustainable settlement development is a complex process involving the country's leadership, regional leadership, and various local actors, community members, non-governmental organizations, and civil society organizations. By broadening the scope of understanding the leadership's role in sustainable settlement development, this section addresses a gap in the literature by recognizing the multifaceted nature of sustainable development, including various stakeholders at different levels. This invites further exploration of how these actors can collaboratively contribute to sustainable development in Central Asian countries and beyond.

2.2. Tourism flow and its impact on sustainable development

The intricate relationship between tourism flow and sustainable development, particularly in Tajikistan and Uzbekistan, is characterized by interdependencies and contradictions. With the burgeoning growth of ecotourism in these areas, its influence on socioeconomic growth, environmental conservation, and cultural preservation has become increasingly complex.

Weaver pointed out that the impact of tourism on sustainable development is not linear and can manifest both positively and negatively, depending on various factors such as the type of tourism, developmental stage, and management practices [25]. This understanding challenges simplistic views and calls for multifaceted analysis of the effects of tourism. Jafari's critique of the carrying capacity concept emphasizes the need to transcend simplistic models, arguing that traditional measures do not fully encompass the intricacies of tourism and sustainable development [26]. This notion is corroborated by Gössling and Hall in their state-of-the-art review, revealing that the term 'sustainable tourism' is still evolving and lacks a universal definition, underscoring the complexity of this field [27].

Bramwell and Lane aptly explored the potential contradictions between tourism and sustainable development, highlighting that, although seemingly conflicting, these domains can be harmonized through sustainable management [28]. This perspective was supported by Sharpley and Telfer's exploration of tourism's dark side, discussing its potential negative impacts, including environmental degradation, social disruption, and cultural erosion, offering a more nuanced understanding [29]. These diverse insights reveal a major gap in the literature, that is, the need for a comprehensive, integrated framework that considers the myriad factors influencing the impact of tourism on sustainable development. This complexity necessitates an approach that embraces the contradictory nature of tourism's influence rather than attempting to classify it into the binary terms of positive or negative.

These studies emphasize that tourism policies in Tajikistan and Uzbekistan must be thoughtfully crafted, considering the dynamic interplay between various influencing factors. This underlines the importance of adaptive, community-engaged strategies that resonate with the regions' unique sociocultural and environmental characteristics, a subject that warrants further exploration and empirical research.

2.3. Community influence and satisfaction in sustainable development

Community engagement, far from a monolithic concept, has emerged as a multifaceted aspect of sustainable development. In regions such as Tajikistan and Uzbekistan, where local traditions, knowledge, and engagement have critical implications, understanding community influence and satisfaction is essential.

In "Sustainable Development and Public Participation: A Critical Review," emphasis is placed on the intricate balance required for participatory success. Factors such as power imbalances, resource availability, and political contexts may influence participatory outcomes [30]by adding complex layers beyond mere engagement. The "Limits of Participation: Community-based Natural Resource Management in Botswana" paper illustrates the potential pitfalls of community-based strategies, demonstrating that a lack of context understanding can lead to conflicts and environmental degradation [31]. These findings underscore the need for a tailored approach that considers local dynamics and potential conflicts.

Jacobs's "Sustainable Development: A Contested Concept" further amplified this complexity by arguing that sustainable development is shaped by the values and interests of various stakeholders [32]. The continuous evolution of the concept and its subjective interpretations signals the need for adaptive approaches that recognize and reconcile diverse perspectives. The "Political Economy of Sustainable Development" adds an economic dimension, stressing that it transcends environmental considerations and must align with changes in consumption and production patterns [33]. This insight aligns with "The Tragedy of the Commons," where shared resource degradation is presented as an economic dilemma requiring property rights or regulation [34]. Within the unique contexts of the Tajikistan's Pamir region and the Fann Mountains, Shokirov and Rahmonov emphasized the importance of traditional wisdom, participative governance, and community-driven accountability [35,36]. With modern conservation strategies, indigenous practices can create harmonious interplay between community aspirations and environmental preservation.

However, these studies collectively reveal a major gap in the understanding of how to leverage community influence for sustainable development. The complexity of the factors involved requires an integrated and nuanced framework to navigate the challenges and opportunities of the different community contexts, historical and cultural aspects, and economic conditions. In regions such as Tajikistan and Uzbekistan, where high poverty, unemployment rates, and cultural preservation are vital concerns, the need for profound exploration of these facets is evident. Community involvement must transcend mere participation and encompass trust, transparency, governance, and alignment with socio-economic and cultural values.

2.4. Hypothesis formulation and their foundations

Building on the above literature, our theoretical framework intertwines three key aspects that determine a settlement's sustainability path: tourism influx, leadership efforts at various levels, and community engagement (Fig. 1). This complexity requires a nuanced understanding of both macro-level (governmental and regional leadership initiatives) and micro-level (community satisfaction and influence) perspectives. From the literature on inclusive leadership and sustainable management, we postulate the following:

Fig. 1.

Theoretical model of hypothesis.

H1: The sustainable development of settlements is intricately connected to national and regional leadership initiatives that promote community engagement and inclusiveness, resonating with Chen's emphasis on governance [37] and reflecting Shah and Atiqul's focus on a multilevel approach to development [24].

H2: The relationship between increased regional tourism and enhanced sustainable development in settlements is nonlinear and requires a balanced interplay between socioeconomic growth, environmental conservation, and cultural preservation. This correlates with the potential highlighted by Shah and Atiqul and Daim [24,38], and echoes the complexity outlined by Weaver's meta-analysis [25] and Bramwell and Lane's sustainable management concepts [28].

H3: Community satisfaction, trust, transparency, and their active roles in local governance, as emphasized by Dola's (2006) public participation theory, are determinants of a trajectory toward sustainable development. This was further supported by Dangi and Jamal's research on sustainable community-based tourism [39] and insights from Shokirov and Rahmonov in the context of Central Asian regions such as Tajikistan and Uzbekistan [35,36].

This study aims to explore these dynamics and offer insights into fostering sustainable practices in ecotourism settlements. Such exploration empowers stakeholders, from policymakers to local communities, to synergize economic prosperity with ecological preservation.

3. Materials and methodologies

3.1. Study area

Diving deeper into the geographic core of our research, several key areas in Tajikistan and Uzbekistan emerged as focal points owing to their ecological and cultural relevance (Fig. 2). Tajik National Park, located in eastern Tajikistan and covering 2.5 million hectares, encompasses the "Pamir Knot" where Central Asia's tallest mountain ranges meet, offering a unique blend of arid and continental climate, geophysical phenomena such as plate tectonics and subduction, diverse flora and endangered fauna such as Marco Polo sheep and snow leopards, and features such as the Fedchenko Glacier and Qolma Pass, fostering outdoor recreation and ecotourism that provides socio-economic benefits to nearby communities [35,[40], [41], [42]].

Fig. 2.

Map of the reserves and national parks in which surveys were conducted (1- Chosen Settlement; 2- Population; 3- Households; 4- Primary Activities: (A- Animal Husbandry; B- Agriculture; C- Services and Hospitality); 5- Education Level.

The Fann Mountains in northwest Tajikistan, part of the Pamir-Alay Mountain country, are known for their biodiversity and scenic landscapes but face environmental challenges such as overgrazing, timber harvesting, and tourism [[43], [44], [45]]. Zaamin National Park in Uzbekistan is characterized by a mountainous terrain, diverse flora and fauna, and stunning natural landscapes. Established in 1976 as a nature protection area, it offers ecotourism opportunities, contributes to local income, and serves as a valuable space for recreation and relaxation [10,46]. The Hisar State Reserve in Uzbekistan's eastern Shakhrisabz district encompasses 78,000 km² of a sharp continental climate and complex relief, ranging from 1800 to 2100 m above sea level. Known for its rare and endangered flora and fauna, it offers outdoor recreational and ecotourism opportunities that contribute to local socioeconomic benefits [47,48]. The key attributes of selected national parks and reserves was provided on Table 1.

Table 1.

Comparative overview of key attributes for selected national parks and reserves in Tajikistan and Uzbekistan.

Attribute	Tajik National Park	Fann Mountains	Zaamin National Park	Hisar State Reserve
Location	Eastern Tajikistan 38°45′54″N 72°18′19″E	Northwest Tajikistan 39°10′00.0″N 68°15′00.0″E	Southeast Uzbekistan 39°37′49″N 68°29′35″E	Southeast Uzbekistan 38° 54′ 52" ′N 67° 27′ 35″ E
Area	2.5 million ha	85,000 ha	24,110 ha	30,000 ha
Climate	Arid continental	Moderate continental	Humid subtropical	Sharply continental
Altitude range (m)	up to 6000 m	up to 5000 m	1200 to 4000 m	1800 to 2100 m
Key Geographical Features	Center of the "Pamir Knot" Eastern	The western Pamir-Alay Mountain	Northern slopes of the Turkestan range	Western part of the Pamir-Alay Mountain
Unique biodiversity	Marco Polo sheep, snow leopards, etc.	Edelweiss, snow leopard, etc.	Tianshan brown bear, etc.	Central Asian cobra, bearded vulture, etc.
Ecotourism and Recreation	Glaciers, mountain passes, 170 rivers, 400 lakes, etc.	High-mountain landscape, 56 lakes, etc.	Scenic spots, views of the natural landscape, etc.	Outdoor recreation, ecotourism, etc.

3.2. Data sources and collection process

In the identified study areas of Tajik National Park, the Fann Mountains, Hisar State Reserve, and Zaamin National Park, a comprehensive survey was executed across four pivotal settlements to capture a broad perspective on local communities' interplay with proximate conservation areas (Fig. 3). The survey design was based on an analysis of tourism infrastructure organizations, local participation in addressing operational challenges, and a comparative approach between Tajikistan and Uzbekistan. The respondents were selected from diverse economic activities and included 40 participants from each settlement, including Murgab, Artuch, Kitob, and Zaamin, for a total of 160 respondents. The methodology meticulously integrated questions on leadership roles, the effects of pre-pandemic tourism, community engagement to delineate stakeholder perspectives, perceptions of regional attractions, and the role of tourism in sustainable development.

Fig. 3.

Research Process Map: Ecotourism Settlement Selection and Evaluation Framework. (Step 1: Survey execution; Step 2: Settlement selection; Step 3: Questionnaire preparing; Step 4: Conducting survey).

The sampling methodology employed quota sampling to ensure equitable representation across sex and age demographics, with tangible questionnaires allowing for written or oral responses. Engagement with municipal leaders and adherence to local norms and customs were paramount in the survey process, which was conducted between September 20 and October 20, marking the end of the pasture season, for higher respondent availability. The researchers visited each selected village and engaged directly with respondents, all of whom rigorously adhered to the personal data regulations delineated by the Republics of Tajikistan and Uzbekistan, focusing solely on individuals aged 18 years and above to ensure a mature analytical lens [[49], [50], [51]].

3.3. Testing the reliability of the data

Reliability is a measure of constructs' internal consistency. A construct is reliable if the alpha (α) value exceeds 0.70. The construct reliability was assessed using Cronbach's alpha. The results revealed that the questions cover topics such as competence in tourism, the attractiveness of sights, factors affecting sustainable development, satisfaction with the quality of services, and more scale with 40 items (α = 0.743) were found reliable. The report does not contain sensitive or prohibited information. The reliability results are summarized in Table 2.

Table 2.

Reliability result.

Constructs	No. of Items	Alpha (α)
Questionary	40	0.743

3.4. Analysis method

To evaluate the impact of stakeholders on National Parks and Reserves, we used descriptive statistics, univariate analyses, and factor analyses. Data analysis was conducted using the SPSS software v.26. The respondents were asked questions on a 10-point scale to provide a wider range of expressions during the survey. However, for data analysis, the responses were transformed and interpreted on a 5-point Likert scale ranging from "strongly disagree" (1) to "strongly agree" (5). This conversion was performed to simplify data interpretation while capturing the nuances of stakeholders' opinions [52,53]. The symmetric nature of this Likert scale offered participants a balanced and symmetric choice in either direction. An asymmetric scale highlighted an option in which the researcher perceived no inherent objective values [50,52]. The independent variables from the questionnaire, including sociodemographic factors, staff interactions, awareness of NGOs, perceptions of benefits and challenges, tourism, and conservation attitudes, were used to determine the mean and standard deviation. Furthermore, the R-squared value illustrates the proportion of the variance in the dependent variable explained by the model.

Nine statements were examined to derive means, medians, frequencies, and standard deviations. Formulas employed:

$$\overline{\mathit{x}}=\mathit{\Sigma }\mathit{x}/\mathit{n}\text{Mean}$$ (1)

$$\mathit{s}=\surd \left((\mathit{\Sigma }\left(\mathit{x}-\mathit{x}\overline{}\widehat{)}\mathbf{2}\right)/\left(\mathit{n}-\mathbf{1}\right)\right)\text{Standard}\text{deviation}$$ (2)

Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) was conducted to test the hypotheses and perform a linear regression analysis.

Linear regression model: $\mathit{y}=\mathit{a}+\mathit{b}\mathit{x}$ where:

y -is the dependent variable (sustainable development of the settlement),

x1, x2, and x3 are independent variables representing the actions of leadership, tourist flow, and population satisfaction, respectively.

• a -is the y-intercept,

• b -is the slope of the line.

4. Results

4.1. Tourist attractions and satisfaction in ecotourism

Perceptions of tourism and ecotourism: 86% of participants found their settlement "wholly appealing" to tourists, as shown in Fig. 4-A. Only 3% of the Fann Mountains and Hisar State Reserve considered their areas merely "tolerable" or "utterly unappealing," attributing this to the lack of infrastructure and major tourism enterprises, making their region less attractive to international tourists.

Fig. 4.

A- Level of the attractiveness of the area; B- Competentness of respondents in the tourism field.

Respondents from Zaamin National Park and Tajik National Park were 91% aligned in recognizing the potential of ecotourism in their areas, as seen in Fig. 4-B—the most endorsed prospective role of ecotourism in development. However, 5% of the Hisar State Reserve and Fann Mountains expressed reservations, arguing that ecotourism negatively impacted their ecosystems, inhibiting the sustainable use of natural resources.

Table 3 presents the mean perceptions of ecotourism on a Likert scale of 1–5 using equations (1), (2)). Tajik National Park and Zaamin National Park had the highest acceptance of ecotourism, while the Fann Mountains had the lowest acceptance. Overall, these regions displayed a moderate inclination towards ecotourism, as seen in the scale evaluations.

Table 3.

Mean and standard deviations of the competence of respondents in the tourism field (1–5 scale).

Competence of respondents in the tourism field	Mean	Std. Deviation
Tajik National Park	3.15	0.662
Fann Mountains	2.90	1.150
Zaamin National Park	3.25	0.809
Hisar State Reserve	3.10	1.128

Strongly Disagree [1: 1.80); 2. Disagree [1.80: 2.60); 3. Neither agree nor disagree [2.60: 3.40); 4. Agree [3.40: 4.20); 5. I strongly agree [4.20: 5].

Perceptions of ecotourism are shaped by locals' satisfaction with tourism services and an area's inherent attractiveness. Table 4 shows that Zaamin National Park is the top choice for ecotourists, offering quality services and entertainment.

Table 4.

Means and standard deviations of the level of attractiveness and level of satisfaction of the local population (1–5 scale).

The level of attractiveness of the area	Mean	Std. Deviation
Tajik National Park	3.35	0.770
Fann Mountains	2.65	1.145
Zaamin National Park	3.60	0.496
Hisar State Reserve	2.45	1.108
The level of satisfaction of the local population with the quality of services provided in the field of tourism and recreation;
Tajik National Park	2.00	1.038
Fann Mountains	1.68	0.859
Zaamin National Park	3.67	0.656
Hisar State Reserve	3.45	0.904

1. Strongly Disagree [1: 1.80); 2. Disagree [1.80: 2.60); 3. Neither agree nor disagree [2.60: 3.40); 4. Agree [3.40: 4.20); 5. I strongly agree [4.20: 5].

Tajik National Park, while attractive, needs to catch up on in-service quality, whereas Hisar State Reserve balances less allure with superior service. Zaamin National Park is the most appealing destination for ecotourists seeking excellent services and recreational experiences.

Impact of COVID-19 and influences on attraction: The survey revealed that many residents of national parks in Uzbekistan and Tajikistan were connected to mountain tourism. The COVID-19 pandemic has caused a sharp decline in the private sector in these areas, primarily due to a halt in tourist arrivals. Respondents were asked about the extent to which certain factors influenced tourist attractions to their region. This feedback highlighted two major perspectives. 95% of the Fann Mountains and Tajik National Park respondents agreed that the government and local interventions greatly attracted tourists. Conversely, 81% of the Zaamin National Park and Hisar State Reserve respondents believed that the natural allure of the region and the quality of tourist services were essential for attracting tourists (see Fig. 5).

Fig. 5.

A- Information institution (traditions, customs.).

When asked about the most significant impact of implementing a tourism development program, 97% of the respondents agreed that it would predominantly influence the region's social development. Most believe that such an initiative will foster personal and social advancement and address regional challenges.

Assessment of services and community engagement: A survey on tourist services displayed divided opinions. 89% of the Fann Mountains and Tajik National Park respondents were dissatisfied and rated the services as unsatisfactory or barely satisfactory. In contrast, 80% of those from Zaamin National Park and Hisar State Reserve were satisfied, deeming services wholly or moderately satisfactory.

Almost half of the survey respondents (49.1%) felt that they had little influence on local decisions, with some expressing concern that increased resident involvement might lead to conflict. This highlights the skepticism about the genuine integration of public opinion into local governance, as depicted in Fig. 6.

Fig. 6.

Result of the question, which shows the ratio of the level of service and recreation in the area.

Responses indicated diverse views on engagement in local matters, with 25% of the respondents showing an interest in participation. Among them, 50% favored community work, 26.5% preferred leading initiatives, and 21.5% were open to discussing local issues.

Among the reasons for low social activity, residents cited not only personal concerns and employment but also a need for more organization, disbelief in the benefits of such work, and a lack of interest from local authorities in collaboration. Collectively, these factors seriously hinder public participation in resolving regional issues.

Residents generally trust the local authorities and are satisfied with their activities. Rather than relying on immediate solutions from the authorities, they place hope in their resilience and adaptability for a better future, emphasizing personal accountability and ownership over future circumstances (see Fig. 7).

Fig. 7.

Results of questions that show the reason for satisfaction influence. Of the population on the solution to local problems (A: Lack of organization; B: Lack of knowledge, incompetence; C: Indifference to everyday affairs; D: Disbelief in the possibility of influencing decision-making).

4.2. Community engagement and prospects for social growth

Influence on social development: Divergent opinions require attention and can be addressed through proactive information sharing and community involvement in decision-making (Fig. 8). Many expect local authorities to handle all territorial issues, including those beyond their control. Only 40% of the survey respondents felt adequately informed about municipal activities. The data imply that the Zaamin National Park and Hisar State Reserve leaders are more transparent and communicative with their communities than those overseeing Tajik National Park and the Fann Mountain regions. When asked about the most significant impact of implementing a tourism development program, 97% of the respondents agreed that it would predominantly influence the region's social development. Most believe that such an initiative will foster personal and social advancement and address regional challenges.

Fig. 8.

Level of awareness of the population about the activities of the local government.

Trust, accountability, and community engagement: The survey results showed a promising outlook; 51% of the respondents felt that the future of their settlement depended on their work and efforts, signifying community responsibility. Alongside the belief that local leaders' experiences and the country's economic situation (53%) are crucial, this emphasizes a balanced perspective. The emphasis on individual roles in a community's progress is significant and can be leveraged for collective community improvement.

Effective governance and community growth require collaboration between the authorities and the population. The foundation of this relationship must be built on trust and shared decision-making that reflects the community's true needs. Empowering people with tools and knowledge is vital, but transparency is the key to maintaining trust. All parties must be able to understand how governance functions to build trust and accountability, contributing to overcoming feelings of alienation, fostering social partnerships, and forming civil society (Fig. 9).

Fig. 9.

According to the respondent's answers, the question's result determines the settlement's future and fate.

4.3. Analysis of influential factors on sustainable settlement development

The hypotheses were tested to understand the influence of various factors on sustainable development, and the results are summarized in Table 5.

Table 5.

Hypotheses testing results.

Hypothesis	Regression Weight	Beta Coefficient	R2	F	t-value	P-value	Hypotheses supported
H1	Q4→Q10	0.404	0.273	4.502	7.429	0.010	Supported
H2	Q8→Q10	0.382	0.146	6.477	2.545	0.015	Supported
H3	Q9→Q10	−0.051	0.003	0.097	−0.312	0.757	Rejected

H1: Sustainable development of a settlement depends on a country's actions and regional leadership. These results indicate a significant negative impact on sustainable development, thus supporting H1.

H2: The increasing flow of tourists in the region has led to significant sustainable settlement development. The analysis revealed a positive impact on life satisfaction, and the significant t-value and p-value (<5%) led to the rejection of the null hypothesis. Consequently, H2 is supported.

H3: The level of satisfaction of the population with the solution of local problems significantly affects the sustainable development of settlements. These results do not support sustainable settlement development; therefore, H3 is rejected.

4.4. Ecotourism dynamics: community trust and sustainable development

This discrepancy in the perception of ecotourism among the surveyed regions has multi-faceted implications. The Fann Mountains reported the lowest acceptance of ecotourism, which strengthens Chen's model and highlights the crucial roles of community trust and transparent governance in sustainable development [37]. In the Fann Mountains, the historical context, cultural values, and inadequate community outreach programs may have influenced this lack of trust and transparency. The gap in trust and coordination among stakeholders must be urgently addressed to better align with Chen's framework.

Zavyalova et al. presented an actionable solution, suggesting that private-sector involvement can mitigate coordination and trust issues [54]. In practical terms, public-private partnerships can facilitate the integration of development goals with local entrepreneurial activities, thereby enhancing the community's buy-in into ecotourism projects.

Notably, 86% of respondents from the surveyed areas perceived their localities as attractive to tourists. This optimistic view is reinforced by Shah, Atiqul, and Daim's argument that national parks have intrinsic socio-economic potential, acting as catalysts for community upliftment [24,38]. However, optimism contrasts with the challenges that surfaced during the study, specifically the infrastructural inadequacies in regions such as the Fann Mountains and the Hisar State Reserve.

Such inadequacies mirror Sedik's findings on the unique socio-ecological complexities of Central Asian regions such as Tajikistan [17]. Therefore, while optimism about the attractiveness of these areas is beneficial, it should be tempered by a grounded understanding of these real-world limitations, especially in regions with distinct socio-ecological challenges.

Moreover, the unexpected rejection of H3 opens a Pandora's box of intriguing research avenues. This rejection, which essentially decouples community satisfaction from sustainable development outcomes, necessitates an in-depth examination of other influencing factors. These could include local governance dynamics, bureaucratic efficiency, and even traditional norms and customs that may override conventional models of satisfaction and problem-solving.

The findings show divergent satisfaction levels with local governance structures, resonating with Victor Squires’ research, which underscores the need for governance models to adapt to local societal norms [16]. This divergence suggests that a one-size-fits-all approach would be ineffective and governance should be participatory and adaptive.

Shokirov's focus on incorporating indigenous knowledge amplifies this point [35]. Conservation efforts can harness community expertise and increase trust and satisfaction by respecting and integrating local knowledge. This strategy is a double-edged sword that fosters both environmental conservation and community welfare.

5. Discussions

5.1. Theoretical implications

This study, situated at the intersection of ecology, sociology, and economics, examines the complex landscape of sustainable development within ecotourism settlements in national parks across Tajikistan and Uzbekistan. Through a meticulous analysis of the diverse regions of the study area and a multidimensional examination of leadership paradigms, resident perceptions, and governance mechanisms, this study sheds light on the intricate relationships between community engagement, tourism, local governance, and sustainable development.

By empirically investigating the perceptions, attitudes, and interactions of residents, authorities, and stakeholders, this study provides a nuanced understanding of how multiple sustainability factors influence development. These include actions and leadership at national and regional levels, tourist influx, satisfaction with the local population, and the population's role in local challenges. Incorporating survey data, Likert scales, and statistical methods, such as factor and regression analyses, enhances the study's methodological rigor, contributing to the theoretical understanding of sustainable development dynamics within ecotourism settings.

This study also enriches the existing literature by providing a comprehensive understanding of sustainable development and highlighting the converging and diverging perceptions across regions. This study advances the theoretical understanding of how these elements collectively contribute to or hinder SDGs by dissecting the multifaceted interplay between community engagement, tourism, local governance, and environmental preservation.

Furthermore, this research guides future exploration of the underlying dynamics that affect community satisfaction and sustainable development. Investigations on sociocultural variables, governance mechanisms, and stakeholder roles could further illuminate strategies for creating harmonious synergies among local populations, policymakers, and conservation initiatives.

Global insights into sustainable development in ecotourism are essential to the theoretical contributions of this study. Although ecotourism dynamics vary across regions, they share universal principles. Examples from Costa Rica to Australia illustrate the importance of local engagement, preservation of natural resources, and the provision of high-quality services and attractions. These global insights align with findings in Tajikistan and Uzbekistan, emphasizing that local policymakers and stakeholders can learn from international models. These insights ensure that Central Asian ecotourism initiatives meet sustainability goals and resonate with the universal ethos of sustainable tourism, offering valuable guidance for harmonious global practices.

In summary, this study's theoretical contribution extends beyond mere empirical observations, melding local and global perspectives to deepen our understanding of sustainable development in ecotourism settlements. Combining detailed local analyses with global perspectives and future research directions offers valuable cues for effective strategies, paving the way for future research and fostering socioeconomic advancement and ecological preservation within ecotourism contexts.

5.2. Practical implementation

An effective community management model offers a comprehensive framework to improve municipal governance in the context of national parks (Fig. 10). The findings of the survey and the application of this model highlight the significance of citizen engagement, project implementation, and measurement results in promoting sustainable practices and addressing the concerns and interests of different stakeholders.

Fig. 10.

Implementation Action plan.

By adopting and integrating this model into their management processes, national park authorities can ensure citizens’ active participation, enhance project outcomes, and promote the long-term sustainability of national parks. The benefits of implementing the model include improved decision-making, increased community ownership, enhanced project implementation, and better outcomes for both the environment and local community. Sustainable tourism can benefit local people and the environment by engaging the local population, fostering collaboration with authorities and other stakeholders, and addressing the concerns raised in the survey.

6. Conclusions

This research, conducted in the pristine national parks of Tajikistan and Uzbekistan, reveals the complex aspects of sustainable development in ecotourism settlements. This study uncovered the multifaceted relationships among community engagement, tourism dynamics, governance challenges, and sustainable development. The overwhelmingly positive perception of these areas emphasizes their untapped potential and highlights the necessity of overcoming infrastructural deficiencies and establishing robust governance.

From a theoretical standpoint, insights into the connection between community satisfaction and sustainable development, and the complexity of adapting global conservation models to local contexts, enrich the existing literature and offer unique frameworks for further exploration. Practically, the need for authorities and policymakers to integrate community management models to ensure a balanced relationship between conservation and development has been emphasized. Such models can fulfill the promise of sustainable tourism, benefiting both the environment and indigenous communities.

Despite these insights, this study has some limitations, such as potential biases in survey responses and constraints in the regions examined. This may have affected the generalizability of the findings. The path to sustainable development in Central Asian national parks, although full of obstacles, can be navigated through targeted efforts, tailored governance, and sincere community engagement. These efforts can result in harmonious coexistence between humans and nature, prospering side-by-side.

This study also sets the foundation for future research by highlighting the complex nature of sustainable development in ecotourism settlements. Further studies could delve into the underlying community satisfaction dynamics, explore other geographical regions, or examine specific governance mechanisms. Such research would contribute to uncovering strategies for effective and sustainable ecotourism practices, resonating with the universal ethos of sustainable tourism, and offering valuable guidance for harmonious global practices.

Ethics statement

The research was conducted under the ethical guidelines and regulations of the Tajik National Park Administration under the control of the Specially Protected Areas Committee of Tajikistan. This study involved human subjects because, in our country, there are not yet organized institutions that will reach ethical approval, which was obtained from the Pamir Tajik National Park Administration under the control of the Committee Specially Protected Areas of Tajikistan under number 37 from June 6, 2023. For other reserves and national parks, we obtained ethical approval from the Khujand Scientific Center, National Academy of Sciences of the Republic of Tajikistan, under number 57, on September 23, 2022.

Data availability statement

The data supporting the findings of this study are included in the article and supplementary material. Where specific data points or sets were referenced, they were cited in the article. This approach was selected to ensure that all relevant information was readily accessible and directly associated with the article for comprehensive understanding and verification. We acknowledge the importance of data transparency in scientific research and have endeavored to present all the necessary data within the article and its supplementary materials to facilitate the evaluation of our findings and encourage further research in this field.

CRediT authorship contribution statement

Sharifjon Habibulloev: Writing – review & editing, Writing – original draft, Visualization, Investigation, Conceptualization. Fang Han: Supervision, Funding acquisition. Zulfiyor Bakhtiyorov: Investigation, Formal analysis. Xuankai M.A: Methodology, Formal analysis. Oshurmamadov Nuhzor: Data curation.

Declaration of AI and AI-assisted technologies in the writing process

During the preparation of this work, the author(s) used ChatGPT 4.0, from the OpenAI and Grammarly platforms to improve language. After using these tools, the author(s) reviewed and edited the content as required and took full responsibility for publication. This declaration does not apply to the basic tools for checking grammar, spelling, or references.

Declaration of competing interest

The authors declare the following financial interests/personal relationships which may be considered as potential competing interests: Han Fang reports financial support was provided by Xinjiang Institute of Ecology and Geography, CAS. Han Fang reports a relationship with Xinjiang Institute of Ecology and Geography, CAS that includes: funding grants. Han Fang has patent Factors Influencing Sustainable Development in Eco-Tourism Settlements: A Comparative Analysis issued to The Second Tibetan Plateau Scientific Expedition and Research Program (STEP) [Grant No. 2019QZKK0401]. The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper. This work was supported by The Second Tibetan Plateau Scientific Expedition and Research Program (STEP) [Grant No. 2019QZKK0401]. If there are other authors, they declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.