Abstract
Background
The more rapid adoption of the Internet in education settings has raised concerns about its impact on adolescents who may suffer from cyberbullying victimization. As a negative life experience, cyberbullying victimization can adversely affect adolescents’ mental health. Particularly, it can lead to more adolescents developing depression. Based on this, we developed and tested a moderated mediation model to examine whether approach and avoidance coping strategies mediate the relationship between cyberbullying victimization and depression, and whether this mediating process was moderated by face consciousness.
Method
This study used a cross-sectional survey design with a sample of 1,586 middle school students from northwestern China, including 782 females (mean age 13.76 ± 1.03 years; age range 12–16). Participants completed an anonymous paper-and-pencil survey that assessed their experiences with cyberbullying victimization, approach and avoidance coping strategies, face consciousness, and depressive symptoms.
Result
The findings revealed that cyberbullying victimization (Beta = 0.37, SE = 0.02, p < 0.001) was significantly positively correlated with depression in adolescents. The avoidance coping strategies (Effect = 0.16, p < 0.001), rather than approach coping strategies, mediate the relationship between cyberbullying victimization and depression. Additionally, face consciousness (Beta = 0.05, t = 2.28, p = 0.009) moderated the mediation: as face consciousness increased, the impact of avoidance coping strategies on depression became stronger.
Conclusion
These findings provide valuable insights into how and when cyberbullying affects adolescent depression, offering potential guidance for prevention and intervention strategies aimed at reducing the impact of cyberbullying on depressive symptoms in this vulnerable population.
Keywords: Cyberbullying victimization, Depression symptom, Coping strategies, Face consciousness, Adolescent
Introduction
Cyberbullying is an intentional act repeatedly committed against an individual or a group by an individual or group using electronic information communication tools [1, 2]. Previous research has shown that being a victim of cyberbullying can worsen depressive symptoms and disrupt the daily lives of adolescents [3, 4]. Numerous scholars examining the connection between cyberbullying and depression have discovered the mediating role of coping strategies in this relationship [5–7]. However, although research has supported the mediating role of avoidance coping strategies between cyberbullying and depression [8, 9], there is ongoing debate about the role of approach coping strategies in this relationship [10, 11]. For example, Ho et al. (2022) found that Vietnamese college students who used approach coping strategies in response to cyberbullying exhibited lower levels of depression [10]. However, Yang et al. (2021) further found that, compared to approach coping strategies, only avoidance coping strategies mediate the relationship between cyberbullying victimization and depressive symptoms [11]. These studies were conducted in different cultural contexts. Therefore, we aim to explore the role of coping strategies in the relationship between cyberbullying and depression within the Chinese adolescent population, contributing to the existing literature.
Furthermore, within the cultural context of China, the concept of “face” permeates all aspects of an individual’s life [12]. This suggests that “face” is closely tied to an individual’s behavior and psychological processes. Research has shown that the concept of “face” plays a role in shaping individuals’ coping behaviors in conflict situations, with individuals who place high concern on “face” tending to favor avoidance strategies to prevent conflict escalation [13]. Chen et al. (2023) found that concern for face was associated with adolescents’ aggression and psychological adjustment problems [14]. Given the importance of face in Chinese culture for adolescents’ behavior and psychology, we explore the role of face in cyberbullying and depression. Building on this, the current study introduces “face consciousness” as a moderating variable, examining its potential role in both the direct and indirect relationships between cyberbullying victimization and depression.
Cyberbullying and depression
Depression, also known as mental disorder, is a prevalent mental health issue characterized by persistent low mood, loss of interest, and a pervasive sense of helplessness in daily activities [4]. This impacts adolescent development, including emotional well-being, cognitive functions, behavioral patterns, and physical health [15]. Research indicates that most adolescents experience depressive symptoms when faced with stressful events or unpleasant situations [15, 16]. Adolescence is a critical period of emotional, social, and cognitive development, during which individuals are particularly susceptible to external stressors [16]. For adolescents, cyberbullying represents a severe and enduring stressor [17]. When confronted by cyberbullying events, adolescents may experience significant psychological stress, lose control over the external environment, leading to a negative emotional perception, which increases their risk of developing depression [18]. Gamez-Guadix et al.’s research shows that cyberbullying victimization can cause significant psychological stress among European adolescents, leading to emotional states like tension and distress that can evolve into depressive symptoms [19]. Chamizo et al.’s research revealed that adolescents who experienced higher levels of cyberbullying were more likely to exhibit stronger depressive symptoms [9]. Those studies suggest that cyberbullying victimization is a risk factor for depressive symptoms in adolescents. Thus, the main objective of this study was to examine the potential mechanisms between cyberbullying victimization and depression.
The mediating role of coping strategies
Coping strategies are defined as specific behaviors and psychological efforts that individuals use to manage, reduce, minimize, or tolerate stressful events [20]. According to the Stress and Coping theory [21], when faced with a stressor, an individual undergoes two cognitive appraisal processes that adjust the relationship between the stressor and its consequences. In the primary cognitive appraisal, an individual evaluates the current situation for potential threats and challenges. If the situation is perceived as dangerous or requiring a response, stress emerges. Subsequently, in the secondary appraisal, the individual assesses their ability and resources to cope with the stressor. Based on this assessment, they select an appropriate coping strategy to confront the stressor and reduce its negative impact [21, 22]. Roth [23] categorizes coping strategies into two types: approach coping and avoidance coping. Approach coping strategies aim to tackle the source of stress directly, such as by seeking help or solving problems. In contrast, avoidance coping strategies focus on managing the emotional response to stress, such as through avoidance or venting.
Previous studies have shown that cyberbullying significantly impacts individuals’ coping strategies. For example, Heiman et al. (2019) found that cyberbullying was negatively correlated with approach coping strategies and positively correlated with avoidance coping strategies [24]. However, research indicates that individuals who have experienced cyberbullying are less likely to use approach coping strategies and more likely to rely on avoidance strategies in response to stress [6]. Previous research has shown that coping strategies influence depressive symptoms in adolescents who experience cyberbullying, with approach and avoidance strategies playing distinct roles [5, 25]. For instance, Ho et al. (2022) found that approach coping strategies are negatively associated with depressive symptoms in cyberbullied adolescents [10]. However, Vollink et al. (2013) reported that adolescents who use avoidance strategies to cope with cyberbullying often experience higher levels of depressive symptoms [6]. Furthermore, Siah et al. (2022) also found that although all coping strategies are linked to cyberbullying, only avoidance coping strategies mediate the relationship between cyberbullying victimization and depressive symptoms [8]. These studies come from different countries and regions, and the situation among Chinese adolescents remains unclear. Therefore, we further explore the role of both coping strategies in the relationship between cyberbullying victimization and depression in Chinese adolescents. However, based on previous research, we hypothesize that, in Chinese adolescents’ population, avoidance coping strategies, rather than approach coping strategies, may mediate the relationship between cyberbullying and depression.
The moderating role of face consciousness
Chinese culture is regarded as a “face culture,” where the power of face permeates every aspect of an individual’s life [12, 26]. Face consciousness is at the core of this concept of face [27], representing its profound influence. Face consciousness is considered a personal trait that involves both the desire to maintain one’s reputation and the concern over damaging it, which the latter is commonly referred to as the fear of losing face [27]. In recent years, many scholars have explored the relationship between face consciousness and individuals’ internal emotional experiences and external behaviors. An empirical study found a positive correlation between cortisol levels (a physiological indicator of stress response) and face consciousness, suggesting that individuals with higher face consciousness may exhibit heightened responsiveness to stressors [28]. Meanwhile, some scholars have found a correlation between an individual’s face consciousness and negative emotional experiences under stress. For example, in competitive work environments, new employees with high levels of face consciousness often exhibit more severe emotional issues, such as social anxiety [29]. Therefore, when involved in cyberbullying, victims with high face consciousness may perceive greater stress and experience more negative emotions, thereby increasing the risk of developing depression among adolescents.
Face negotiation theory suggests that an individual’s behavior in stressful situations is influenced by their awareness of their own face [26]. As face consciousness increases, so does the perceived risk of losing face, leading individuals to take steps to safeguard their reputation and image. For example, in competitive work environments, avoid expressing ideas to protect their face [30]. Similarly, in business negotiations, those with high face consciousness may cancel negotiations or proceed cautiously to prevent losing face [13]. Thus, in cyberbullying situations, individuals with high face consciousness are more likely to adopt negative, avoidance coping strategies to protect their face from harm. Moreover, according to the stress and coping theory [21], personality traits not only influence the choice of coping strategies but also affect mental health outcomes after these strategies are used. For instance, in the context of cyberbullying, self-esteem moderates the link between coping strategies and depression, with high self-esteem acting as a buffer, reducing the harmful effects of negative coping on depression [5, 10]. Face consciousness reflects an individual’s concern with how others evaluate them, and is closely linked to self-esteem [31, 32]. It is plausible that face consciousness also moderated the relationship between avoidance coping strategies and depression. Therefore, we expect that face consciousness may play a moderating role in the mediation process between cyberbullying victimization, avoidance coping strategies, and their impact on depression.
Current research
In summary, to further elucidate the formation and developmental mechanisms underlying depression among middle school students suffering cyberbullying victimization, a multifactorial integration perspective is required to concurrently investigate the mediating and moderating mechanisms of cyberbullying victimization, coping strategies, and face consciousness. Based on stress and coping theory and face negotiation theory, our study proposes a moderated mediation model (see Fig. 1). The following hypotheses are proposed: H1: Cyberbullying victimization is significantly positively correlated with adolescent depression. H2: The association between cyberbullying victimization and adolescent depression is only mediated by avoidance coping strategies. H2a: Cyberbullying victimization is not significantly correlated with approach coping strategies, and approach coping strategies is significantly negatively correlated with adolescent depression. H2b: Cyberbullying victimization is significantly positively correlated with avoidance coping strategies, and avoidance coping strategies is significantly positively correlated with adolescent depression. H3: Face consciousness moderates both the direct and indirect pathways between cyberbullying victimization and adolescent depression. Specifically, the direct and indirect relations between cyberbullying perpetration and depression would be much stronger for young adults with higher levels of face consciousness. H3a: Face consciousness moderates the direct pathway between cyberbullying and depression. H3b: Face consciousness moderates the relationship between cyberbullying victimization and avoidance coping strategies. H3c: Face consciousness moderates the relationship between avoidance coping strategies and depression.
Fig. 1.
Proposed theoretical model
Methods
Participants
According to Kline [33], a representative sample requires large-scale sampling methods, with a sample size exceeding 20 times the number of items. Given that this study includes 77 items, a minimum sample size of 1,540 is needed. The study was conducted in November and December 2023 in Xi’an, a city located in northwestern China. The study used convenience sampling, selecting participants from a single public middle school in the urban areas. All participants were Han Chinese and shared a similar cultural background. Initially, 1,692 participants were recruited. After excluding those who did not respond seriously or failed to complete the required number of questions, 1,586 participants (93.81%) were included in the final data analysis. This sample size aligns with the requirements for large-scale surveys. The participants included 804 males (50.69%) and 782 females (49.31%), aged 12 to 16 years (M = 13.76, SD = 1.03). They comprised 642 first-year middle school students (40.47%), 406 s-year students (25.60%), and 538 third-year students (33.92%). Among them, 1,364 were non-only children (86.00%), and 222 were only children (14.00%). Overall, the findings indicated that a significant majority (69.42%) of adolescents had experienced cyberbullying (CV score ≥ 2).
The study received approval from the Ethics Committee of the School of Humanities and Social Sciences at Fuzhou University (FZUPSY202312181351), and informed consent was obtained from all participants. Compensation was provided to participants upon completing the questionnaire. With the school principal’s approval, trained psychology graduate students, along with teachers, supervised the students as they completed a paper-based quiz (about 20 min) in the classroom. Students were informed that their responses were anonymous and that they could withdraw from the quiz at any time. Each student received self-help educational materials including strategies for preventing cyberbullying and coping with depression. Furthermore, we provided further psychological support services to the school.
Measures
Cyberbullying victimization scale
The Cyberbullying Victimization Scale (CBI) was used to evaluate adolescents’ experiences of cyberbullying victimization over the past year [34]. The CBI consists of 18 different cyberbullying victimization activities (e.g., “I have been hurt by someone I met online”). A score of more than 2 points on any single item indicates a recent experience of cyberbullying victimization. The CBI uses a 4-point scale, where 1 represents “0 times” and 4 represents “more than 5 times,” with higher scores indicating more severe instances of cyberbullying. The reliability and validity of the CBI have been well-established among Chinese adolescents [18], and in this study, the scale showed strong reliability (Cronbach’s alpha = 0.90).
Face consciousness scale
The Face Consciousness Scale was used to assess the level of face consciousness among adolescents [27]. The scale includes 11 items (e.g., “It is important for me to get praise and admiration”), each rated on a 7-point Likert scale, where 1 represents “not at all consistent” and 7 represents “fully consistent.” Higher scores reflect a stronger inclination to value and protect one’s public image in daily life. The scale has proven to be a reliable tool in Chinese test groups [35], and in this study, it also demonstrated good reliability (Cronbach’s alpha = 0.82).
Coping strategies scale
The Coping Strategy Scale was used to evaluate the coping strategies adolescents might use when facing cyberbullying [36]. The scale consists of 28 items that measure both approach and avoidance coping strategies, rated on a 5-point Likert scale, where 1 means “never” and 5 means “always.” The scale consists of two dimensions. The first 14 items assess the tendency to use approach coping strategies (e.g., “I try to find a solution”), while the next 14 items focus on the tendency to use avoidance coping strategies (e.g., “I try to convince myself that nothing has happened”). A higher score on different dimensions indicates a preference for approach or avoidance coping strategies. In this study, the overall scale showed good reliability (Cronbach’s alpha = 0.82), with the approach coping scale (Cronbach’s alpha = 0.84), and avoidance coping scale (Cronbach’s alpha = 0.78) also showing good reliability.
Depression scale
The Center for Epidemiological Studies Depression Scale (CES-D) is employed to assess depressive symptoms in adolescents over the past week [37]. The CES-D consists of 20 items (e.g., “I feel like I’ve been a failure all along”) rated on a 4-point scale, where 0 represents “not at all” and 3 represents “most of the time.” Higher scores reflect more severe depressive symptoms in adolescents. The reliability of the CES-D has been confirmed in Chinese adolescents [38], and in this study, it also showed good reliability (Cronbach’s alpha = 0.90).
Data analysis
All data were processed and analyzed using SPSS 26.0 and PROCESS 4.2 software packages. First, statistical analyses were conducted on the common method bias and the prevalence of cyberbullying. Second, descriptive analysis was performed to examine correlations between the variables. Third, following the approach of previous studies, this study tests the mediating effect of avoidance coping strategies and the moderating effect of face consciousness in two steps. Considering the impact of gender and age on depression and cyberbullying, these factors were included as control variables during data analysis in this study, enhancing the accuracy of hypothesis testing.
Results
Common method bias
Although this study followed strictly standardized measurement procedures and participants completed the questionnaire anonymously, there is still a potential for common method bias due to the use of self-reported data. To address this, the Harman one-factor test was used to detect common method bias [39]. The results revealed 16 factors with eigenvalues greater than 1, with the first factor explaining only 15.95% of the total variance, which is below the critical threshold of 40%. This suggests that significant common method bias is not present in the data.
Descriptive statistics and correlation analysis
Table 1 presents the descriptive statistics and correlations for both the study variables and demographic factors. The results indicated significant positive correlations between cyberbullying victimization, face consciousness, avoidance coping strategies, and depression symptoms. Approach coping strategies were not significantly related to cyberbullying victimization or face consciousness. However, it was positively correlated with avoidance coping strategies and negatively correlated with depression symptoms. To minimize Type I errors, approach coping strategies will be included in the model for subsequent analyses of the collected data. Furthermore, gender and age were found to be significantly associated with cyberbullying victimization, coping strategies, depression symptoms, and face consciousness. To avoid the possible influence of demographic variables, gender and age will be controlled as covariates in the subsequent statistical analysis.
Table 1.
Descriptive and correlation analysis of variables in this study (N = 1586)
| M | SD | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1. Gender | 1.49 | 0.50 | 1 | ||||||
| 2. Age | 13.59 | 1.03 | 0.04 | 1 | |||||
| 3. CV | 22.53 | 6.47 | 0.06* | -0.001 | 1 | ||||
| 4. APCT | 43.01 | 9.64 | 0.02 | -0.05* | -0.03 | 1 | |||
| 5. AVCT | 32.95 | 8.61 | -0.04 | -0.03 | 0.42*** | 0.09*** | 1 | ||
| 4. FC | 39.51 | 11.56 | -0.01 | -0.05* | 0.27*** | -0.02 | 0.40*** | 1 | |
| 7. CESD | 38.05 | 10.58 | -0.13*** | -0.07** | 0.36*** | -0.06* | 0.46*** | 0.30*** | 1 |
Notes.*p < 0.05, **p < 0.01, ***p < 0.001; CV = Cyberbullying Victimization; FC = Face Consciousness; APCT = Approach Coping Strategies; AVCT = Avoidance Coping Strategies; CESD = The Center for Epidemiological Studies Depression Scale; the same as below
Mediation analysis
The parallel mediating effects of approach and avoidance coping strategies on the association between cyberbullying victimization and cyberbullying victimization were tested using Model 4 in Hayes’ (2013) PROCESS program. In the model, cyberbullying victimization served as the independent variable, with approach and avoidance coping strategies as mediators, and depression symptoms as the dependent variable. After controlling for gender and age, the results showed that cyberbullying victimization was positively associated with depression symptoms (β = 0.37, SE = 0.02, p < 0.001), but not associated with approach coping strategies (β = -0.03, SE = 0.03, p = 0.21). Furthermore, approach coping strategies was negatively associated with depression symptoms (β = -0.08, SE = 0.02, p < 0.001). The significance of the mediating effect was assessed using the Bootstrap method, which showed a mediating effect of 0.003 for approach coping strategies, with a 95% confidence interval of -0.001 to 0.007. Since the confidence interval included 0, a significant mediating effect of approach coping strategies could not be confirmed.
Meanwhile, cyberbullying victimization was positively associated with avoidance coping strategies (β = 0.43, SE = 0.02, p < 0.001), and avoidance coping strategies was positively associated with depression symptoms (β = 0.37, SE = 0.02, p < 0.001). The significance of the mediating effect was assessed using the Bootstrap method, which showed avoidance coping strategies mediating effect value of 0.16 with a 95% confidence interval of 0.13–0.19. Since the confidence interval did not include 0, a significant mediating effect of avoidance coping strategies can be confirmed. This mediating effect accounted for 43.24% of the total effect (0.37) (see Table 2).
Table 2.
Mediating model test of coping strategies
| Regression equation | Overall fit index | Significance of regression coefficients | |||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Outcome variable | Predictor variable | R | R² | F | β | 95%CI | t |
| CESD | Gender | 0.40 | 0.16 | 100.03*** | -0.30 | [-0.39, -0.21] | -6.54*** |
| Age | -0.06 | [-0.10, -0.01] | -2.56* | ||||
| CV | 0.37 | [0.33, 0.42] | 16.15*** | ||||
| APCT | Gender | 0.06 | 0.004 | 2.22* | 0.04 | [-0.06, 0.14] | 0.76 |
| Age | -0.05 | [-0.10, 0.01] | -2.17* | ||||
| CV | -0.03 | [-0.08, 0.02] | -1.27 | ||||
| AVCT | Gender | 0.43 | 0.18 | 118.3*** | -0.12 | [-0.21, -0.03] | -2.63** |
| Age | -0.03 | [-0.07, 0.02] | -1.20 | ||||
| CV | 0.43 | [0.38, 0.47] | 18.74*** | ||||
| CESD | Gender | 0.52 | 0.27 | 117.52*** | -0.26 | [-0.34, -0.17] | -5.90*** |
| Age | -0.05 | [-0.09, -0.01] | -2.48* | ||||
| CV | 0.21 | [0.17, 0.26] | 8.93*** | ||||
| APCT | -0.08 | [-0.13, -0.04] | -3.88*** | ||||
| AVCT | 0.37 | [-0.34, -0.17] | 15.41*** | ||||
Moderated mediation model analysis
Model 59 in the PROCESS program was used to test a moderated mediation model with face consciousness as a possible moderator by controlling gender and age. The results showed that the interaction between avoidance coping strategies and face consciousness was positively linked to depression symptoms (β = 0.05, SE = 0.02, p = 0.009), suggesting that face consciousness moderated the relationship between avoidance coping strategies and depression symptoms. However, the interaction between cyberbullying victimization and face consciousness was not associated with approach coping strategies (β = 0.03, SE = 0.04, p = 0.36), avoidance coping strategies (β = 0.03, SE = 0.04, p = 0.36), or depression symptoms (β = 0.03, SE = 0.04, p = 0.36). This suggests that face consciousness did not moderate the relationships between cyberbullying victimization and either approach or avoidance coping strategies, nor between cyberbullying victimization and depression symptoms. Additionally, the interaction between approach coping strategies and face consciousness was not associated with depression symptoms (β = 0.03, SE = 0.04, p = 0.36), indicating that face consciousness did not moderate the association between approach coping strategies and depression symptoms (See Fig. 2; Table 3).
Fig. 2.
Moderated mediation model regarding perceptions of cyberbullying victimization and depression, mediated by avoidance coping strategies and moderated by face consciousness
Table 3.
Moderated mediation model test
| Regression equation | Overall fit index | Significance of regression coefficients | |||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Outcome variable | Predictor variable | R | R² | F | β | 95%CI | t |
| APCT | Gender | 0.07 | 0.01 | 1.58 | 0.04 | [-0.06, 0.14] | 0.72 |
| Age | -0.05 | [-0.100, -0.004] | -2.13* | ||||
| CV | -0.02 | [-0.07, 0.04] | -0.52 | ||||
| FC | -0.02 | [-0.07, 0.03] | -0.79 | ||||
| CV×FC | -0.02 | [-0.07, 0.03] | -0.86 | ||||
| AVCT | Gender | 0.52 | 0.27 | 116.79*** | -0.10 | [-0.19, -0.02] | -2.34* |
| Age | -0.01 | [-0.05, 0.03] | -0.61 | ||||
| CV | 0.33 | [0.28, 0.38] | 13.22*** | ||||
| FC | 0.31 | [0.26, 0.35] | 13.68*** | ||||
| CV×FC | 0.02 | [-0.02, 0.07] | 0.92 | ||||
| CESD | Gender | 0.53 | 0.28 | 69.58*** | -0.26 | [-0.34, -0.17] | -6.00*** |
| Age | -0.05 | [-0.09, -0.01] | -2.18* | ||||
| CV | 0.20 | [0.15, 0.25] | 7.48*** | ||||
| APCT | -0.08 | [-0.12, -0.03] | -3.45*** | ||||
| APCT×FC | -0.04 | [-0.078, 0.001] | -1.96 | ||||
| AVCT | 0.32 | [0.27, 0.38] | 12.95*** | ||||
| AVCT×FC | 0.05 | [0.01, 0.10] | 2.28* | ||||
| FC | 0.11 | [0.06, 0.16 ] | 4.61*** | ||||
| CV×FC | -0.04 | [-0.09, 0.01] | -1.64 | ||||
To clarify the moderating effect of face consciousness on the relationship between coping strategies and depression symptoms, a simple slopes analysis was conducted based on high and low groupings (plus and minus one standard deviation) of face consciousness. The simple slope analysis showed (Fig. 3) that the association between avoidance coping strategies and depressive symptoms was stronger when the level of face consciousness was high (β = 0.37, SE = 0.03, p < 0.001, CI = [0.31, 0.43]) than when this level was low (β = 0.27, SE = 0.04, p < 0.001, CI = [0.20, 0.34]). Overall, face consciousness may exacerbate the effect of avoidance coping strategies on depressive symptoms. The indirect effects of cyberbullying victimization on depressive symptoms through avoidance coping strategies were found at both high and low levels of face consciousness (high level: β = 0.13, SE = 0.02, p < 0.001, CI = [0.10, 0.17]; low level: β = 0.08, SE = 0.02, p < 0.001, CI = [0.05, 0.12]).
Fig. 3.
The moderating role of face consciousness on the relationship between avoidance coping strategies and depression
Discussion
This study developed a moderated mediation model grounded in stress and coping theory, along with face negotiation theory, to examine the relationship between cyberbullying victimization and depression. Approach and avoidance coping strategies were tested as the mediating variable, while face consciousness was explored as a moderating factor. Our findings revealed that avoidance coping strategies, rather than approach coping strategies, mediated the relationship between cyberbullying victimization and depressive symptoms Additionally, face consciousness moderated the relationship between avoidance coping strategies and depression. These results offer valuable insights into the complex psychological mechanisms linking cyberbullying to mental health outcomes.
The mediating role of coping strategies
The results of this study indicate that a significant positive correlation between cyberbullying victimization and depression among adolescents, suggesting that cyberbullying victimization, as a stressor, can trigger intense depressive emotions [18, 40]. We examined the mediating roles of approach and avoidance coping strategies in the relationship between cyberbullying victimization and depression. Our results showed that avoidance coping strategies, rather than approach coping strategies, mediated the relationship between cyberbullying victimization and depressive symptoms in adolescents. This finding is consistent with previous studies, which suggest that Chinese adolescents often lack effective coping skills and fail to adopt approach coping strategies to mitigate stress caused by cyberbullying [5, 6, 8]. This underscores the importance of Chinese educators and parents in fostering Chinese adolescents’ understanding and use of approach coping strategies to mitigate the negative effects of stressful life events.
Additionally, we found that avoidance coping strategies mediated the relationship between cyberbullying victimization and depression. In the first half of the mediation model, our study found a significant positive relationship between cyberbullying victimization and avoidance coping strategies, which aligns with previous research [7, 41]. The tension and anxiety from cyberbullying events, may drive adolescents to adopt more negative coping. Moreover, in the second half of the mediation model, our study found a significant positive relationship between avoidance coping strategies and adolescent depression, indicating that higher levels of avoidance coping are linked to higher levels of adolescent depression [10]. One possible explanation is that avoidance coping offers only a short-term and superficial relief from adolescents’ emotional distress, such as anxiety and tension [22]. While this may offer temporary comfort, it ultimately fails to address the persistent harm causes of cyberbullying. When adolescents experience severe cyberbullying, avoidance coping can prove ineffective, potentially deepening their feelings of helplessness and hopelessness [18], which may lead to serious mental health problems. Therefore, our results suggest that avoidance coping strategies are one of the underlying mechanisms linking cyberbullying victimization to adolescent depressive symptoms.
The moderating role of face consciousness
This study found that face consciousness did not significantly moderate the impact of cyberbullying on avoidance coping strategies and depression. One possible explanation for this finding is that cyberbullying may exert a powerful and direct negative power on individuals’ psychological well-being [42, 43], overshadowing the moderating role of face consciousness. Even when individuals possess strong face consciousness, the intense negative experiences associated with cyberbullying may overwhelm its moderating effects, rendering it ineffective. In other words, the direct impact of cyberbullying may far exceed the indirect moderating effect of face consciousness. Additionally, the anonymity inherent in online environments allows individuals to conceal their true identities, thereby reducing social pressure from others [44]. Consequently, when faced with cyberbullying, individuals may not experience a significant sense of face loss, which could diminish the moderating role of face consciousness.
Notably, we found that face consciousness intensified the impact of avoidance coping strategies on depression. Specifically, high face consciousness may amplify the impact of negative coping strategies on psychological and mental stress among cybervictimization adolescents, ultimately increasing the occurrence of depression. According to Goffman’s point of face [12] and previous research [27, 45], face consciousness refers to an individual’s sensitivity to negative comments or feedback from others. Individuals with high face consciousness tend to excessively worry about potential negative judgments, which is associated with feelings of humiliation and lower levels of happiness. Once adolescents resort to negative coping strategies in response to cyberbullying, they may recognize that their chosen behaviors are passive or maladaptive, and start considering how others might evaluate their actions. At the same time, adolescents with high face consciousness are more likely to be concerned with others’ evaluations, fearing being labeled as cowardly or weak, which can trigger feelings of shame and fear. The accumulation of these negative emotions may ultimately increase the risk of depression. However, this is only a possible explanation, and future research should further explore the moderating role of face consciousness. Thus, our findings provide some evidence of the potential risky role of face consciousness on psychological health in adolescents suffering cybervictimization. Notably, Chen et al. (2024) discovered that concern for “face” exerts varying levels of influence on adolescent groups in urban and rural settings [14]. However, the adolescents in this study are from urban areas. Therefore, whether the conclusions of this study can be generalized to adolescents from rural areas requires further investigation.
Limitations and future research directions
Our research has several limitations. First, the generalizability of the findings is limited since the study focused solely on adolescents. Future studies should expand to include different age groups and populations, including various occupational groups engaged in Internet-related activities. Second, from a cross-cultural perspective, face consciousness is more prominent among Chinese individuals, who place greater importance on social image and seek external validation compared to Western individuals [26]. Since this study included only adolescents from Northwest China, we could not examine face consciousness across cultures or determine its role outside of China. Future research should explore these cross-cultural dimensions to assess whether face consciousness acts as a related factor in cyberbullying in different cultural contexts. Third, this study used a cross-sectional design, which limits the ability to establish a causal relationship between cyberbullying victimization and depression. Future research should use a variety of methods, such as experimental designs and longitudinal studies, to examine the relationship between cyberbullying victimization and depression, as well as the mediating role of coping strategies and the moderating role of face consciousness. Additionally, since the primary focus of our study was on the impact of cyberbullying and family income is a matter of personal privacy, we did not collect this data. Although our participants were from the same school in the same region, family income may have had a limited impact on the adolescents. However, the role of family income in the relationship between cyberbullying victimization and adolescent depression remains unclear in this study; therefore, future research should further explore this. Finally, while this study identified the moderating role of face consciousness, it was limited to the relationship between avoidance coping strategies and adolescent depression. Future studies should explore other mental health issues, such as anxiety and self-harm, thereby may providing deeper insights into the complex relationship between face consciousness and adolescent mental health.
Conclusion
Overall, this study examined the relationship between cyberbullying victimization and adolescent depression, focusing on the mediating role of coping strategies and the moderating effect of face consciousness in this process. The results indicated a positive relationship between cyberbullying victimization and adolescent depression, with avoidance coping strategies mediating this relationship. In addition, face consciousness moderated the mediating effect of avoidance coping strategies on the relationship between cyberbullying and adolescent depression. These findings provide new insights into the mechanisms by which cyberbullying victimization leads to depressive symptoms in adolescents and aid in identifying effective interventions to reduce the risk of adolescent depression.
Acknowledgements
The authors wish to thank each participant who took part in this study.
Author contributions
S.H.: resources, conceptualization and methodology, validation, visualization, writing—original draft, writing—review and editing; L.Z.: conceptualization and methodology, validation, resources, data curation, project administration, writing—review and editing.
Funding
This work was supported by the National Social Science Foundation of China (19BSH087).
Data availability
Data from this study have been uploaded to the Open Science Framework, and open access links will be provided upon acceptance of the manuscript.
Declarations
Ethics approval and consent to participate
The research was conducted in accordance with the Declaration of Helsinki and received approval from the Human Research Ethics Committee of the School of Humanities and Social Sciences, Fuzhou University (FZUPSY202312181351). All participants were fully informed about the study and provided written Informed consent (for those under 16, consent was also obtained from their parents or legal guardians). The consent form outlined the study’s objectives, data protection measures, privacy safeguards, and the right to withdraw at any time.
Consent for publication
Not applicable.
Competing interests
The authors declare no competing interests.
Footnotes
Publisher’s note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
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Associated Data
This section collects any data citations, data availability statements, or supplementary materials included in this article.
Data Availability Statement
Data from this study have been uploaded to the Open Science Framework, and open access links will be provided upon acceptance of the manuscript.