Emerging Adulthood in Autism: Striving for Independence or Interdependence?

Nearly a quarter of a century ago, Jeffrey Arnett introduced the concept of emerging adulthood to describe the period of time when youth transition from adolescence to young adulthood (Arnett, 2000). Prior to the concept of emerging adulthood, Western theories of developmental stages assumed that individuals acquired milestones of adulthood relatively quickly in the years after adolescence, including becoming financially independent through work, finding a romantic partner, and starting a family of one’s own. And indeed, that was often the case for earlier generations. In more recent decades, however, the average age of first marriage and parenthood has rapidly risen, and college enrollment has become increasingly more common, delaying entry into the workforce (Arnett, 2014). Observing these trends of a prolonged transition to adulthood, Arnett proposed this new developmental stage of emerging adulthood (Arnett, 2000), defined as a period of exploration where emerging adults gradually assume the responsibilities of adulthood. According to Arnett’s theory, independence (i.e., self-sufficiency) is a primary indicator that a person has left emerging adulthood and entered into adulthood. However, social and economic changes in the last two decades have left many Americans in their twenties and thirties continuing to rely on others for support across different domains of life (e.g., social support and financial support; Pew Research Center, 2024). This suggests that the emphasis on independence as a marker of adulthood may not be entirely accurate or realistic.

While some autistic youth have attitudes consistent with Arnett’s conceptualization of emerging adulthood, feeling as though they need more time to gradually move toward adulthood (Cribb et al., 2019), others consider themselves to be adults immediately after adolescence (e.g., 18 years of age; Anderson et al., 2016). This belief may lead to unattainable expectations, as most people achieve more traditional milestones of adulthood later in life (e.g., 29 years of age; Arnett, 2014). Like their non-autistic peers, it is also unclear to what extent independence should be considered a marker of adulthood in this group – particularly given the varied opinions autistic emerging adults have about the importance of self-sufficiency. For instance, though some autistic youth hope to live on their own, others report no desire to move out of the parental home (Anderson et al., 2016). Moreover, autistic emerging adults who desire greater independence can find it challenging to achieve this goal without support (Cribb et al., 2019; Sosnowy et al., 2018).

Thus, to support autistic youth in reaching their maximum potential and achieving their goals during emerging adulthood and beyond, it may be helpful to widen our focus from promoting independence to promoting independence and interdependence. While the term interdependence has been used in various contexts, here we conceptualize interdependence as a mutual dependency between two or more people and is underscored by the notion that support should not stifle autonomy (Condeluci, 1995). Drawing from other scholars (e.g., Settersten et al., 2015), we argue that no one acts entirely independently, and thus, independence and interdependence co-occur within all people (autistic or not). Further, individuals demonstrate varying degrees of independence and interdependence across domains of life and stages of development. For instance, while some emerging adults may prefer a high degree of interdependence throughout their lifespan, others may desire some degree of interdependence to gain more self-sufficiency in later adulthood (e.g., living independently).

For emerging adults in the general population, interdependence – particularly with families of origin – is increasingly recognized as an important part of the process by which to gain independence. A recent report from a nationally representative sample of 18–34-year-olds in the United States found that emerging adults rely on their parents for more extended periods of time than in earlier generations but generally describe this prolonged interdependence as a positive experience that has, in some ways, helped increase their autonomy (Pew Research Center, 2024). For instance, 64% of emerging adults who lived with their parents claimed this arrangement has had a positive impact on their financial independence, 55% indicated this has positively affected the parent-child relationship, and nearly 30% reported co-residing with parents has been positive for their sense of independence (Pew Research Center, 2024).

In the general population, the increased role of parent support during emerging adulthood has corresponded with scrutiny of parenting styles during this developmental period. The media has reported that increased parent involvement is problematic for emerging adults’ well-being, taking hold of the term “helicopter parenting,” defined by a high level of parental control in decision-making and problem-solving on behalf of their child (Padilla-Walker & Nelson, 2012), with thousands of articles disparaging this parenting style [e.g., “Want A Well-Adjusted College Student? Stop Helicopter Parenting” (Forbes, 2016) and “Kids with ‘helicopter parents’ more likely to burn out, have a harder time transitioning to ‘real world’” (Consumer News and Business Channel (CNBC), 2019)]. More recent empirical studies, however, have not universally found negative effects of “helicopter parenting.” In fact, some profiles of “helicopter parenting” are associated with positive outcomes for emerging adults, such as lower levels of depression and delinquency and higher levels of school engagement (Padilla-Walker et al., 2021). This extant work demonstrates that the relationship between parenting styles and emerging adults’ outcomes is incredibly nuanced.

Understanding how to effectively parent emerging adults as they transition from adolescence to adulthood becomes even more complex when the person is autistic, given the diverse needs of individuals across the autism spectrum. It is important to identify how parents of autistic emerging adults can balance supporting their youth while also encouraging autonomy, a concern echoed by parents themselves (Cribb et al., 2019; Sosnowy et al., 2018). Parents are often fierce advocates for their children, working for more timely diagnoses, better access to quality services, and increased autism acceptance (Cleary et al., 2023). During the transition to adulthood, parents of autistic youth continue to play key roles by improving access to essential services for their adult children through their advocacy efforts (Lee et al., 2022), underscoring the need for them to continue to be involved in their young adult children’s lives into adulthood. While historically the focus on the parent-child relationship after the period of adolescence has not been a research priority in the autism field, we argue that emerging adulthood is a critical time to explore the parent-child relationship and how it relates to outcomes in autistic youth. From a developmental perspective, the parent-child relationship is central to the experience of emerging adults, and in no other period across development does the relationship between parents and their children shift as drastically as it does during emerging adulthood (Tanner, 2006). Therefore, instead of ignoring the developmental process of recentering the parent-child relationship during emerging adulthood, we need to identify ways to leverage this relationship to promote autistic people’s desired outcomes through supportive partnerships with their parents.

Widening our view to consider potential avenues toward interdependence in addition to or as a path to independence may point to new approaches for supporting autistic emerging adults. It will be important that those approaches are evidence-based, informed by several key areas of research. As already mentioned, research is needed on the role of parents and parenting strategies that support independence, interdependence, and any combination thereof among autistic emerging adults. Further, more systematic research from the autistic perspective is needed to ascertain individual differences in goals and priorities for adulthood and how to best support autistic people in achieving these goals. Indeed, the National Autistic Taskforce, a group managed by autistic people, has begun this work to address priorities for interdependent support by creating a guide to quality care for autistic people that underscores the importance of respecting and promoting their autonomy (National Autistic Taskforce, 2019). Thus, further work to clearly identify ways in which to support the desired balance of independence and interdependence is critical to ensure our research, programs, and policies are promoting each person’s goals in a respectful manner. Additionally, emerging adults may desire varying degrees of independence and interdependence across different domains of life. For instance, some autistic emerging adults could aspire to have financial independence but social interdependence. It will also be important to investigate how culture influences the interplay between independence and interdependence for autistic emerging adults. In the general population, different perspectives surrounding independence in adulthood are shaped by cultural values (e.g., collectivist cultures tend to emphasize interdependence, whereas individualist cultures tend to value independence, although both concepts can be valued within a culture; Oyserman et al., 2002). Therefore, the intersectionality of autism and social/cultural identities and contexts will need to be considered. Finally, longitudinal studies will be useful in informing the interplay between independence and interdependence from a developmental perspective. The desired balance of independence/interdependence for somebody in emerging adulthood will likely differ from that person’s goals and priorities when they enter mid-to-late adulthood. Understanding how one’s preferences and needs for support changes over time will be critical to ensure that the right level of support to meet a person’s desired needs is available.

Finally, while we have made the argument that parents act as support systems for emerging adults, we recognize that many individuals may fulfill caregiving roles for autistic individuals. The concept of interdependence can be extended to different types of support systems, such as other family members (e.g., siblings, extended family members), peers, romantic partners, and even government systems aimed to provide formal supports to autistic individuals. Given that interdependence is a relational concept, the level of support and type of supporter may shift across a person’s lifetime. For instance, emerging adults may demonstrate interdependence with their parents and other caregivers until they find a romantic partner or other relational support systems. By focusing on interdependence, we can elevate the outcomes of autistic persons by providing the support needed to achieve fulfilling lives that meet their individual needs in emerging adulthood and beyond.