Abstract
Plant‐parasitic nematodes are among the most destructive plant pathogens, resulting in a global annual economic loss of about 358 billion dollars. Using synthetic nematicides to control plant‐parasitic nematodes has resulted in broad‐spectrum toxicity to the environment. Plant‐derived secondary metabolites have recently emerged as viable options that provide effective, greener, and renewable routes for managing plant‐parasitic nematodes in various cropping systems. However, limited comprehensive information on plant‐derived secondary metabolites sources, chemical structures, and nematicidal activities is available. This study aims to compile and analyze data on plant‐based secondary metabolites with nematicidal properties collected over the last two decades. In this review, we identified 262 plant‐based metabolites with nematicidal activities that were isolated from 35 plant families and 65 plant species. Alkaloids, terpenoids, saponins, flavonoids, coumarins, thiophenes, and annonaceous acetogenins were among the most studied compounds. In addition to the structure–activity relation for specific metabolites with nematicidal potency, various techniques for their extraction and isolation from plant material are discussed. Our findings demonstrate the potential of plants as a feedstock for sourcing nematicidal compounds and discovering new chemistries that could potentially be used for developing the next generation of nematicides. © 2024 The Author(s). Pest Management Science published by John Wiley & Sons Ltd on behalf of Society of Chemical Industry.
Keywords: plant‐parasitic nematodes, nematicidal compounds, phytochemicals, secondary metabolites
A review of structure–activity correlations for 262 plant‐derived nematicidal compounds for controlling plant parasitic nematodes is presented. Chemical structures, sources, and isolation procedures are summarized based on the major chemical groups.
1. INTRODUCTION
Plant‐parasitic nematodes (PPNs) are among the most destructive plant pathogens that threaten the quantitative and qualitative production of cash crops, and exert an estimated economic loss of about USD 358 billion globally every year. 1 , 2 In tropical and subtropical regions alone, the destructive activities of PPNs have caused losses in agricultural productivity of up to 14.6%. 3 , 4 , 5 , 6 At the same time, the management of PPNs continues to be challenging due to the inability of synthetic nematicides to provide season‐long protection against nematodes, the inadequacy of nematode‐resistant cultivars, and the ability of PPNs to not only adapt for survival but also reproduce and disperse under different climate and environmental changes, among others. 1 , 7
Currently, synthetic pesticides are the most frequently used practice for the control of PPNs. However, synthetic nematicides such as methyl bromide, carbofuran, chloropicrin, dozomet, 1,3‐dichloropropane, metam‐sodium, and fosthiazate, 8 , 9 , 10 , 11 , 12 , 13 , 14 some of which have been phased out, often disrupt ecological equilibriums, pollute the environment, present broad‐spectrum toxicity to wildlife and human handlers, and promote the development of resistant species. 15 , 16 , 17 Thus, the necessity for novel, safer nematicides that can be selectively lethal toward PPNs, cannot be overemphasized. Natural nematicidal compounds from cultivated plants or plants with the potential to become cultivated industrial crops can serve as a feedstock for these novel nematicides.
To date, more than 4200 species of PPNs have been reported, and some of them cause damage to economically important crops, indicating the breath of the potential needs for a range of nematicides. 18 , 19 , 20 The parasitism by nematodes results from the disruption of water transport within plants and diversion of nutrients to the nematode and consequently leads to stunted growth, chlorosis, and poor yields. 21 Cyst nematodes (Heterodera and Globodera spp.) and root‐knot nematodes (Meloidogyne spp.) are widely recognized as some of the most economically significant plant pathogens worldwide and the most devastating PPNs that affect cash crops such as soy, corn, and potatoes. 22 , 23 , 24 Other PPNs (migratory endoparasitic and ectoparasitic) that cause devastating invasive diseases to plants in Africa, North America, Asia, and Europe include Bursaphelenchus xylophilus (pine wilt nematode), 25 Pratylenchus spp. (root‐lesion nematodes), 26 Radopholus similis (burrowing nematode), Ditylenchus dipsaci (stem and bulb nematode), Rotylenchulus reniformis (reniform nematode), Xiphinema index, Nacobbus aberrans, and Aphelenchoides besseyi (leaf and bud nematode). 24 Certain ectoparasitic nematode species, such as Xiphinema and Longidorus, also act as significant vectors for plant viruses. 21
Historically, nematicidal constituents of plants (crude extracts and isolated compounds) have proven to be effective in pest management with relative safety to non‐target organisms, rapid biodegradation, and prevention of the development of resistance in pests due to their diverse active substances and mechanisms of action. 27 , 28 Constituents from higher plants have emerged as viable options that provide green routes for developing effective and environmentally friendly nematicides. Plant essential oils, extracts, fractions, and isolated metabolites with nematicidal potentials, such as inhibiting egg hatching, increasing larval mortality, and reducing root‐knot disease, have continued to attract significant attention from the scientific community.
For example, compounds such as borneol, citral, citronellol, citronellal, terpinen‐4‐ol, α‐terpineol, 29 , 30 limonene, 31 , 32 , 33 (E)‐cinnamaldehyde, (E)‐cinnamaldehyde oxime (Ferreira Barros et al., 2021), thymol, 34 , 35 eugenol, 36 , 37 , 38 carvacrol, 39 , 40 and geraniol 41 identified from different plant essential oils demonstrated strong hatching inhibition and nematicidal effects against a broad spectrum of nematode species. Currently, over 300 species and 100 families of plants are known to exhibit nematicidal activity. 17
The subject of nematicidal activity of natural metabolites from various sources (plants, bacteria and fungi) has been extensively reviewed. Anke and Sterner 42 reviewed fungal metabolites with activity towards nematodes, focusing on the screening strategies and ecology of the fungus–nematode interactions. Chitwood 43 reviewed the potential of higher plants and fungi compounds with nematode‐antagonistic activity. In 2007, about 179 compounds isolated from different fungi strains were reviewed and discussed regarding their chemical structures and nematicidal activity. 44 Ntalli and Caboni 45 , 46 reviewed the nematicidal activity of Mediterranean and humid subtropical plant metabolites against Meloidogyne species. Degenkolb and Vilcinskas 47 reported a two‐part review article discussing 83 nematicidal and non‐nematicidal primary and secondary metabolites found in nematophagous ascomycetes. To complement their previous study, the authors discussed 101 nematicidal compounds biosynthesized by nematophagous basidiomycetes. 48 In 2021, the research progress of natural nematicidal active compounds from plants, bacteria, and fungi against PPNs and Caenorhabditis elegans within 10 years was reviewed and discussed in terms of the structure–activity relationship and mechanism of action. 49 Similarly, Li and Zhang 50 summarize the chemical structures, structure–activity relationship, and application potentiality of about 344 metabolites from natural sources in PPN biocontrol, spanning 2010 to 2021.
The present review explores the recent advances in the various techniques for extracting and isolating chemicals with nematicidal activities from plants which were not covered in the previous reviews. We summarize the plant‐based chemicals isolated during 2000–2023 that have been shown to contain activities towards PPNs. Our review covers a total of 262 compounds from cultivated plant species as well as their nematicidal activities. In addition to indicating the chemical compounds, the structure–activity relation (SAR) for specific chemicals is also discussed. Finally, the review is focused on isolated compounds rather than on studies in which crude extracts or fractions were examined for nematicidal activity unless the active compounds were isolated.
2. METHODOLOGY
2.1. Data collection
A comprehensive literature search was conducted to identify research publications on the isolation of nematicidal compounds from plant sources. SciFinder, Web of Science, Scopus, Pubmed, and Google Scholar databases were used to search for peer‐review research and review publications, and patents between January 2000 to December 2023. The keyword for the literature search was ‘isolated nematicidal compound AND plants’. Only publications that elucidated structures of investigated plant‐derived nematicides by chromatographic method, mass spectrometry, or nuclear magnetic resonance were included. ChemDraw Professional 22.0.0 software was used to draw the chemical structures of compounds.
2.2. Literature information analysis
Database search for ‘isolated nematicidal compound AND plants’ as the keyword/search string yielded 74 relevant articles published within the last two decades, where the chemicals were isolated and their chemical structure and nematicidal activities determined (Fig. 1). Based on the reviewed articles (Table 1), the majority of the reported nematicidal metabolites were isolated from plants collected in Asia (mainly China and Pakistan) and North America (particularly Mexico).
Figure 1.
Trend of the number of publications per year on plant‐based isolated nematicidal compounds from 2000 to 2023.
Table 1.
Phytochemistry and nematicidal activity of various metabolites reported from the plant kingdom
| Plants | Isolated compounds | Country of plant collection | Nematicidal activity | References |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Alkaloids | ||||
| Rutaceae (Evodia rutaecarpa; fruits) | Evodiamine (1) | China | Active against Meloidogyne incognita (LC50 = 73.55 μg/mL at 72 h) | 51 |
| Rutaceae (Evodia rutaecarpa; fruits) | Rutaecarpine (2) | China | Active against Meloidogyne incognita (LC50 = 120.85 μg/mL at 72 h) | 51 |
| Rutaceae (Evodia rutaecarpa; fruits) | Wuchuyuamide I (3) | China | Active against Meloidogyne incognita (LC50 = 147.87 μg/mL at 72 h) | 51 |
| Taxaceae (Cephalotaxus fortunei; twigs and leaves) | Drupacine (4) | China | Active against Bursaphelenchus xylophilus (ED50 = 27.1 μg/mL at 24 h) and Meloidogyne incognita (ED50 = 76.3 μg/mL at 24 h) | 52 |
| Malvaceae (Triumfetta grandidens; aerial); (Waltheria indica; roots) | Waltherione A (5) | Vietnam | Active against Meloidogyne incognita (EC50 = 0.26, 0.27 and 0.18 μg/mL at 24, 48 and 72 h, respectively); towards Meloidogyne arenaria, Meloidogyne hapla, Meloidogyne incognita, and Bursaphelenchus xylophilus with EC50 values 0.63, 1.74, 0.27 and 3.54 μg/mL at 72 h | 53, 54 |
| Malvaceae (Triumfetta grandidens; aerial); (Waltheria indica; roots) | Waltherione E (6) | Vietnam | Active against Meloidogyne incognita (EC50 = 0.15, 0.09 and 0.08 μg/mL at 24, 48 and 72 h, respectively); against Meloidogyne arenaria, Meloidogyne hapla, Meloidogyne incognita, and Bursaphelenchus xylophilus with EC50 values 0.25, 0.09, 0.09 and 2.13 μg/mL at 72 h, respectively | 53, 54 |
| Malvaceae (Waltheria indica; roots) | Waltherione C (7) | Vietnam | Active against Meloidogyne arenaria, Meloidogyne hapla, Meloidogyne incognita, and Bursaphelenchus xylophilus with EC50 values 10.67, 19.79, 16.59 and 790.85 μg/mL at 72 h, respectively | 54 |
| Stemonaceae (Stemona parviflora; roots) | 3β‐n‐Butylstemonamine (8) | China | Lethality effect against Panagrellus redivivus (IC50 = 42.5 μM at 24 h) | 55 |
| Stemonaceae (Stemona parviflora; roots) | Protostemonamide (9) | China | Lethality effect against Panagrellus redivivus (IC50 = 1.95 μM at 24 h) and Caenorhabditis elegans (LC50 = 52.67 μM at 12 h) | 55, 56, 57 |
| Stemonaceae (Stemona parviflora; roots) | Protostemonine (10) | China | Nematicidal activity against Panagrellus redivivus (IC50 = 0.10 μM at 24 h) | 55 |
| Stemonaceae (Stemona parviflora; roots) | (+)‐Oxystemofoline (11) | China | Lethality effect against Panagrellus redivivus (IC50 = 76.4 μM at 24 h) | 55 |
| Stemonaceae (Stemona parviflora; roots) | Stemofoline (12) | China | Nematicidal activity against Panagrellus redivivus (IC50 = 0.46 μM at 24 h) | 55 |
| Stemonaceae (Stemona mairei; roots) | Stemarine C (13) | China | Inhibitory effect against Caenorhabditis elegans (LC50 = 42.4 μM at 12 h) | 56, 57 |
| Stemonaceae (Stemona mairei; roots) | Stemarine D (14) | China | Inhibitory effect against Caenorhabditis elegans (LC50 = 46.8 μM at 12 h) | 56, 57 |
| Stemonaceae (Stemona mairei; roots) | Stemarine E (15) | China | Inhibitory effect against Caenorhabditis elegans (LC50 = 41.3 μM at 12 h) | 56, 57 |
| Stemonaceae (Stemona mairei; roots) | Stemarine F (16) | China | Inhibitory effect against Caenorhabditis elegans (LC50 = 46.8 μM at 12 h) | 56, 57 |
| Stemonaceae (Stemona mairei; roots) | Stemarine N (17) | China | Inhibitory effect against Caenorhabditis elegans (LC50 = 88.5 μM at 12 h) | 56, 57 |
| Stemonaceae (Stemona mairei; roots) | Protostemonine (18) | China | Inhibitory effect against Caenorhabditis elegans (LC50 > 100 μM at 12 h) | 56, 57 |
| Stemonaceae (Stemona mairei; roots) | Dehydroprotostemonine (19) | China | Inhibitory effect against Caenorhabditis elegans (LC50 > 200 μM at 12 h) | 56, 57 |
| Stemonaceae (Stemona mairei; roots) | Stemtuberline B (20) | China | Inhibitory effect against Caenorhabditis elegans (LC50 = 76.8 μM at 12 h) | 56, 57 |
| Papaveraceae (Fumaria parviflora; roots) | Cis‐protopinium (21) | Pakistan | 100% inhibition against Meloidogyne incognita at 200 mg/mL over 120 h | 58 |
| Papaveraceae (Fumaria parviflora; roots) | Trans‐protopinium (22) | Pakistan | 100% inhibition against Meloidogyne incognita at 200 mg/mL over 120 h | 58 |
| Rutaceae (Orixa japonica; roots) | (Z)‐3‐(4‐Hydroxybenzylidene)‐4‐(4‐hydroxyphenyl)‐1‐ methylpyrrolidin‐2‐one (23) | China | Active against Bursaphelenchus xylophilus (LC50 = 391.50 μg/mL) and Meloidogyne incognita (ED50 = 134.51 μg/mL) | 59, 60 |
| Rubiaceae (Uncaria rhynchophylla; aerial) | 17‐O‐Methyl‐3,4,5,6‐tetrade hydrogeissoschizine (24) | China | 98.6% inhibition against Panagrellus redivivus at 250 μg/mL over 24 h | 61 |
| Rubiaceae (Uncaria rhynchophylla; aerial) | Dihydrocorynantheine (25) | China | 70.9% inhibition against Panagrellus redivivus at 250 μg/mL over 24 h | 61 |
| Rubiaceae (Uncaria rhynchophylla; aerial) | 4‐Hirsuteine N‐oxide (26) | China | 95.6% inhibition against Panagrellus redivivus at 250 μg/mL over 24 h | 61 |
| Rubiaceae (Uncaria rhynchophylla; aerial) | Corynantheine (27) | China | 99.6% inhibition against Panagrellus redivivus at 250 μg/mL over 24 h | 61 |
| Rubiaceae (Uncaria rhynchophylla; aerial) | Gessoschizine methyl ether (28) | China | 57.4% inhibition against Panagrellus redivivus at 250 μg/mL over 24 h | 61 |
| Rubiaceae (Uncaria rhynchophylla; aerial) | Indole [23‐a] quinolizine‐a‐acetic acid (29) | China | 78.9% inhibition against Panagrellus redivivus at 250 μg/mL over 24 h | 61 |
| Apocynaceae (Alstonia boonei, leaves) | Alstrostine C (30) | Ghana | Nematicidal effect against Caenorhabditis elegans (LC50 = 400 μM at 48 h) | 62 |
| Rutaceae (Clausena lansium; seeds) | 2′‐Dehydroxy‐2′‐acetoxyl‐clausenalansamide B (31) | China | Inhibitory effect against Panagrellus redivivus (IC50 = 2.75 mM at 24 h) | 63 |
| Rutaceae (Clausena lansium; seeds) | Neoclausenamide‐A (32) | China | Inhibitory effect against Panagrellus redivivus (IC50 = 3.93 mM at 24 h) | 63 |
| Rutaceae (Clausena lansium; seeds) | Lansamide‐I (33) | China | Inhibitory effect against Panagrellus redivivus (IC50 = 0.12 mM at 24 h) | 63 |
| Rutaceae (Clausena lansium; seeds) | Clausenalansamide A (34) | China | 56.5% lethality against Panagrellus redivivus at 2.5 mg/mL over 24 h | 64 |
| Rutaceae (Clausena lansium; seeds) | 3‐Dehydroxy‐3‐ methoxyl‐clausenalansamide A (35) | China | 79.6% lethality against Panagrellus redivivus at 2.5 mg/mL over 24 h | 64 |
| Rutaceae (Clausena lansium; seeds) | Clausenalansamide B (36) | China | 21.4% lethality against Panagrellus redivivus at 2.5 mg/mL over 24 h | 64 |
| Rutaceae (Clausena lansium; seeds) | Lansiumamide B (37) | China | 71.5% lethality against Panagrellus redivivus at 2.5 mg/mL over 24 h | 64 |
| Rutaceae (Clausena lansium; seeds) | N‐2‐Phenylethyl‐cinnamamide (38) | China | 20.2% lethality against Panagrellus redivivus at 2.5 mg/mL over 24 h | 64 |
| Rutaceae (Clausena lansium; seeds) | 2′‐Dehydroxy‐2′‐oxo‐clausenalansamide B (39) | China | 16.3% lethality against Panagrellus redivivus at 2.5 mg/mL over 24 h | 64 |
| Rutaceae (Clausena lansium; seeds) | Lansamide‐7 (40) | China | 46.1% lethality against Panagrellus redivivus at 2.5 mg/mL over 24 h | 64 |
| Fabaceae (Piterogyne nitens; leaves) | Galegine (41) | Brazil | 97.4% immobility against Meloidogyne incognita at 250 μg/mL over 24 h | 65 |
| Fabaceae (Piterogyne nitens; leaves) | Pterogynidine (42) | Brazil | 98.2% immobility against Meloidogyne incognita at 250 μg/mL over 24 h | 65 |
| Fabaceae (Piterogyne nitens; leaves) | Pterogynine (43) | Brazil | 96.9% immobility against Meloidogyne incognita at 250 μg/mL over 24 h | 65 |
| Terpenoids and saponins | ||||
| Verbenaceae (Lantana camara; aerial) | Camarinic acid (44) | Pakistan | 100% mortality against Meloidogyne incognita at 1% concentration over 72 h | 66 |
| Verbenaceae (Lantana camara; aerial) | Camaric acid (45) | Pakistan | 95.0% mortality against Meloidogyne incognita at 0.5% concentration over 72 h | 67 |
| Verbenaceae (Lantana camara; AERIAL) | Lantanilic acid (46) | Pakistan | 98.7% mortality against Meloidogyne incognita at 0.5% concentration over 72 h | 67 |
| Verbenaceae (Lantana camara; aerial) | Oleanolic acid (47) | Pakistan | 70.3% mortality against Meloidogyne incognita at 0.5% concentration over 72 h | 67 |
| Verbenaceae (Lantana camara; aerial) | Pomolic acid (48) | Pakistan | 100% mortality against Meloidogyne incognita at 1 mg/mL over 24 h | 68 |
| Verbenaceae (Lantana camara; aerial) | Lantanolic acid (49) | Pakistan | 100% mortality against Meloidogyne incognita at 1 mg/mL over 24 h | 68 |
| Verbenaceae (Lantana camara; aerial) | Lantoic acid (50) | Pakistan | 100% mortality against Meloidogyne incognita at 1 mg/mL over 24 h | 68 |
| Verbenaceae (Lantana camara; aerial) | Camarin (51) | Pakistan | 100% mortality against Meloidogyne incognita at 1 mg/mL over 48 h | 68 |
| Verbenaceae (Lantana camara; aerial) | Lantacin (52) | Pakistan | 100% mortality against Meloidogyne incognita at 1 mg/mL over 48 h | 68 |
| Verbenaceae (Lantana camara; aerial) | Camarinin (53) | Pakistan | 100% mortality against Meloidogyne incognita at 1 mg/mL over 48 h | 68 |
| Verbenaceae (Lantana camara; aerial) | Ursolic acid (54) | Pakistan | 100% mortality against Meloidogyne incognita at 1 mg/mL over 48 h | 68 |
| Boreginaceae (Cordia latifolia; stem bark) | Cordinoic acid (55) | Pakistan | 100% mortality against Meloidogyne incognita at 0.5% concentration over 24 h | 69 |
| Verbenaceae (Lantana camara; aerial) | Lancamarolide (56) | Pakistan | 60.0% mortality against Meloidogyne incognita at 0.0625% concentration over 72 h | 70 |
| Verbenaceae (Lantana camara; aerial) | Oleanonic acid (57) | Pakistan | 80.0% mortality against Meloidogyne incognita at 0.0625% concentration over 72 h | 70 |
| Verbenaceae (Lantana camara; aerial) | Lantadene A (58) | Pakistan | 70.0% mortality against Meloidogyne incognita at 0.0625% concentration over 72 h | 70 |
| Verbenaceae (Lantana camara; aerial) | 11α‐hydroxy‐3‐oxours‐12‐en‐28‐oic acid (59) | Pakistan | 40.0% mortality against Meloidogyne incognita at 0.0625% concentration over 72 h | 70 |
| Verbenaceae (Lantana camara; aerial) | Betulinic acid (60) | Pakistan | 50.0% mortality against Meloidogyne incognita at 0.0625% concentration over 72 h | 70 |
| Verbenaceae (Lantana camara; aerial) | Lantadene B (61) | Pakistan | 60.0% mortality against Meloidogyne incognita at 0.0625% concentration over 72 h | 70 |
| Verbenaceae (Lantana camara; aerial) | Lantaninilic acid (62) | Pakistan | 60.0% mortality against Meloidogyne incognita at 0.0625% concentration over 72 h | 70 |
| Asteraceae (Reichardia tingitana; aerial) | Lupeol (63) | Egypt | 91.8 and 88.0% mortality against Meloidogyne incognita and Tylenchulus semipenetrans, respectively, at 120 ppm over 72 h | 71 |
| Myrtaceae (Syzygium aromaticum; flower buds) | 3‐O‐Trans‐p‐coumaroylmaslinic acid (64) | Pakistan | 90.0% mortality against Meloidogyne incognita at 0.125% concentration over 72 h | 72 |
| Myrtaceae (Syzygium aromaticum; flower buds) | Methyl maslinate (65) | Pakistan | 88.0% mortality against Meloidogyne incognita at 0.125% concentration over 72 h | 72 |
| Myrtaceae (Syzygium aromaticum; flower buds) | Maslinic acid (66) | Pakistan | 92.0% mortality against Meloidogyne incognita at 0.125% concentration over 72 h | 72 |
| Myrtaceae (Syzygium aromaticum; flower buds) | Lantanone (67) | Pakistan | 83.0% mortality against Meloidogyne incognita at 0.125% concentration over 72 h | 72 |
| Cucurbitaceae (Microsechsssssium helleri; roots) | 3‐O‐β‐D‐Glucopyranosyl (13)‐β‐D‐glucopyranosyl‐2β,3β,16α,23‐tetrahydroxyolean‐12‐en‐28‐oic acid 28‐α‐L‐rhamnopyranosyl‐(1 3)‐β‐D‐xylopyranosyl‐(1 4)‐[β‐D‐xylopyranosyl‐(1 3)]‐α‐L‐rhamnopyranosyl‐(1 2)‐α‐L‐arabinopyranoside (68) | Mexico | 6.5% lethality against Meloidogyne javanica at 0.5 μg/μL over 72 h | 73 |
| Cucurbitaceae (Microsechsssssium helleri; roots) | 3‐O‐β‐D‐Glucopyranosyl‐2β,3β,16α,23‐tetrahydroxyolean‐12‐en‐28‐oic acid 28‐O‐α‐L‐rhamnopyranosyl‐(1 3)‐β‐D‐xylopyranosyl‐(1 4)‐[β‐D‐xylopyranosyl‐(1 3)]‐α‐L‐rhamnopyranosyl‐(1 2)‐α‐L‐arabinopyranoside (69) | Mexico | 6.3% lethality against Meloidogyne javanica at 0.5 μg/μL over 72 h | 73 |
| Cucurbitaceae (Microsechsssssium helleri; roots) | Amole F (70) | Mexico | 4.8% lethality against Meloidogyne javanica at 0.5 μg/μL over 72 h | 73 |
| Cucurbitaceae (Microsechsssssium helleri; roots) | Amole G (71) | Mexico | 7.8% lethality against Meloidogyne javanica at 0.5 μg/μL over 72 h | 73 |
| Cucurbitaceae (Sicyos bulbosus; roots) | Tacacoside C (72) | Mexico | 97.2% lethality against Meloidogyne javanica at 0.5 μg/μL over 72 h | 73 |
| Cucurbitaceae (Sicyos bulbosus; roots) | Durantanin III (73) | Mexico | 73.8% lethality against Meloidogyne javanica at 0.5 μg/μL over 72 h | 73 |
| Cucurbitaceae (Sicyos bulbosus; roots) | Heteropappussaponin (74) | Mexico | 90.8% lethality against Meloidogyne javanica at 0.5 μg/μL over 72 h | 73 |
| Cucurbitaceae (Sicyos bulbosus; roots) | Tacacosido B3 (75) | Mexico | 93.0% lethality against Meloidogyne javanica at 0.5 μg/μL over 72 h | 73 |
| Cucurbitaceae (Sicyos bulbosus; roots) | 3‐O‐β‐D‐Glucopyranosyl (1 3)‐β‐D‐glucopyranosyl‐2β,3β,16α,23‐tetrahydroxyolean‐12‐en‐28‐oic acid 28‐O‐α‐L‐rhamnopyranosyl‐(1 3)‐β‐D‐xylopyranosyl‐(1 4)‐α‐L‐rhamnopyranosyl‐(1 2)‐α‐L‐arabinopyranoside (76) | Mexico | 100% lethality against Meloidogyne javanica at 0.5 μg/μL over 72 h | 73 |
| Cucurbitaceae (Sicyos bulbosus; roots) | Heteropappussaponin 7 (77) | Mexico | 92.8% lethality against Meloidogyne javanica at 0.5 μg/μL over 72 h | 73 |
| Cucurbitaceae (Sicyos bulbosus; roots) | 3‐O‐β‐D‐glucopyranosyl (1 3)‐β‐D‐glucopyranosyl‐2β,3β,16α,23‐tetrahydroxyolean‐12‐en‐28‐oic acid 28‐O‐α‐Lrhamnopyranosyl‐(1 3)‐β‐D‐xylopyranosyl‐(1 4)‐[β‐D‐apiosyl‐(1 3)]‐α‐L‐rhamnopyranosyl‐(1 2)‐α‐L‐arabinopyranoside (78) | Mexico | 79.7% lethality against Meloidogyne javanica at 0.5 μg/μL over 72 h | 73 |
| Ranunculaceae (Pulsatilla koreana; roots) | Hederacholchiside E (79) | Korea | Inhibitory effect against Meloidogyne incognita (LC50 = 94.7 μg/mL at 48 h) | 74 |
| Ranunculaceae (Pulsatilla koreana; roots) | Hederacoside B (80) | Korea | Inhibitory effect against Meloidogyne incognita (LC50 = 88.9 μg/mL at 48 h) | 74 |
| Ranunculaceae (Pulsatilla koreana; roots) | 3‐O‐β‐D‐glucopyranosyl (1 → 3)‐α‐L‐rhamnopyranosyl (1 → 2)‐α‐L‐arabinopyranosyl oleanolic acid (81) | Korea | Inhibitory effect against Meloidogyne incognita (LC50 = 169.2 μg/mL at 72 h) | 74 |
| Ranunculaceae (Pulsatilla koreana; roots) | Raddeanoside R13 (82) | Korea | Inhibitory effect against Meloidogyne incognita (LC50 = 75.8 μg/mL at 48 h) | 74 |
| Ranunculaceae (Pulsatilla koreana; roots) | Hederacholchiside F (83) | Korea | Inhibitory effect against Meloidogyne incognita (LC50 = 134.7 μg/mL at 48 h) | 74 |
| Ranunculaceae (Pulsatilla koreana; roots) | Pulsatilla saponin F (84) | Korea | Inhibitory effect against Meloidogyne incognita (LC50 = 127.5 μg/mL at 48 h) | 74 |
| Ranunculaceae (Pulsatilla koreana; roots) | Hederoside C (85) | Korea | Inhibitory effect against Meloidogyne incognita (LC50 = 70.1 μg/mL at 48 h) | 74 |
| Ranunculaceae (Pulsatilla koreana; roots) | Pulsatilla saponin D (86) | Korea | Inhibitory effect against Meloidogyne incognita (LC50 = 79.9 μg/mL at 48 h) | 74 |
| Ranunculaceae (Pulsatilla koreana; roots) | Kalopanaxsaponin H (87) | Korea | Inhibitory effect against Meloidogyne incognita (LC50 = 184.3 μg/mL at 72 h) | 74 |
| Flavonoids | ||||
| Phyllanthaceae (Phyllanthus niruri; whole plant) | 8‐(3‐Methyl‐but‐2‐enyl)‐2‐phenyl chroman‐4‐one (88) | India | Inhibitory effect against Meloidogyne incognita (LC50 = 70.9 ppm) and Rotylenchulus reniformis (LC50 = 102.9 ppm) at 72 h | 75 |
| Phyllanthaceae (Phyllanthus niruri; whole plant) | 2‐(4‐hydroxyphenyl)‐8‐(3‐methyl‐but‐2‐enyl)‐chroman‐4‐one (89) | India | Inhibitory effect against Meloidogyne incognita (LC50 = 14.5 ppm) and Rotylenchulus reniformis (LC50 = 3.3 ppm) at 72 h | 75 |
| Fabaceae (Leucaena leucocephala; leaves) | Quercetin (90) | Nigeria | 100% mortality against Meloidogyne incognita at 0.2% concentration over 120 h | 76 |
| Myrtaceae (Eucalyptus exserta; stem bark) | Sideroxylin (91) | China | 58.8% mortality against Meloidogyne incognita at 100.0 mg/L over 72 h | 77 |
| Myrtaceae (Eucalyptus exserta; Stem bark) | (−)‐Catechin (92) | China | 51.0% mortality against Meloidogyne incognita at 100.0 mg/L over 72 h | 77 |
| Thymelaeaceae (Stellera chamaejasme; roots) | Chamaechromone (93) | China | Inhibitory effect against Bursaphelenchus mucronatus (LC50 = 0.003 μM) and Bursaphelenchus xylophilus (LC50 = 36.7 μM) at 72 h | 78 |
| Myrtaceae (Syzygium aromaticum; flower buds) | Nigricin (94) | Pakistan | 76.0% mortality against Meloidogyne incognita at 1% concentration over 72 h | 72 |
| Araceae (Lemna japonica; whole plant) | Luteolin 6‐C‐(2″‐O‐trans‐coumaroyl‐D‐malate)‐β‐glucoside (95) | China | Inhibitory effect against Meloidogyne incognita (EC50 = 1.56 mg/mL) at 48 h | 79 |
| Verbenaceae (Lantana camara; aerial) | Lantanoside (96) | Pakistan | 95.0% mortality against Meloidogyne incognita at 1% concentration over 72 h | 66 |
| Verbenaceae (Lantana camara; aerial) | Linaroside (97) | Pakistan | 90.0% mortality against Meloidogyne incognita at 1% concentration over 72 h | 66 |
| Araceae (Arisaema erubescens; tubers) | Schaftoside (98) | China | Inhibitory effect against Meloidogyne incognita (LC50 = 114.7 μg/mL) at 72 h | 80 |
| Araceae (Arisaema erubescens; tubers) | Isoschaftoside (99) | China | Inhibitory effect against Meloidogyne incognita (LC50 = 323.1 μg/mL) at 72 h | 80 |
| Thymelaeaceae (Stellera chamaejasme; roots) | Ruixianglangdusu B (100) | China | Inhibitory effect against Bursaphelenchus mucronatus (LC50 = 0.6 μM) and Bursaphelenchus xylophilus (LC50 = 15.7 μM) at 72 h | 78 |
| Thymelaeaceae (Stellera chamaejasme; roots) | (+)‐Chamaejasmine (101) | China | Inhibitory effect against Bursaphelenchus mucronatus (LC50 = 5100 μM) and Bursaphelenchus xylophilus (LC50 = 4.7 μM) at 72 h | 78 |
| Thymelaeaceae (Stellera chamaejasme; roots) | Chamaejasmenin C (102) | China | Inhibitory effect against Bursaphelenchus mucronatus (LC50 = 3.1 μM) and Bursaphelenchus xylophilus (LC50 = 2.7 μM) at 72 h | 78 |
| Thymelaeaceae (Stellera chamaejasme; roots) | 7‐Methoxyneochaejasmin A (103) | China | Inhibitory effect against Bursaphelenchus mucronatus (LC50 = 151.1 μM) and Bursaphelenchus xylophilus (LC50 = 167.3 μM) at 72 h | 78 |
| Thymelaeaceae (Stellera chamaejasme; roots) | Isosikokianin A (104) | China | Inhibitory effect against Bursaphelenchus mucronatus (LC50 = 2.3 μM) and Bursaphelenchus xylophilus (LC50 = 2200 μM) at 72 h | 78 |
| Thymelaeaceae (Stellera chamaejasme; roots) | Chamaejasmenin B (105) | China | Inhibitory effect against Aphelenchoides besseyi (LC50 = 3.94 mM) and Ditylenchus destructor (LC50 = 0.29 mM) at 72 h | 81 |
| Thymelaeaceae (Stellera chamaejasme; roots) | Isoneochamaejasmin A (106) | China | Inhibitory effect against Aphelenchoides besseyi (LC50 = 2.32 mM) and Ditylenchus destructor (LC50 = 0.18 mM) at 72 h | 81 |
| Thymelaeaceae (Stellera chamaejasme; roots) | Neochamaejasmin B (107) | China | Inhibitory effect against Aphelenchoides besseyi (LC50 = 2.74 mM) and Ditylenchus destructor (LC50 = 15.6 mM) at 72 h | 81 |
| Coumarins | ||||
| Thymelaeaceae (Stellera chamaejasme; roots) | Umbelliferone (108) | China | Inhibitory effect against Bursaphelenchus mucronatus (LC50 = 33.4 μM) and Bursaphelenchus xylophilus (LC50 = 3.3 μM) at 72 h | 78 |
| Thymelaeaceae (Stellera chamaejasme; roots) | Daphnoretin (109) | China | Inhibitory effect against Bursaphelenchus mucronatus (LC50 = 0.05 μM) and Bursaphelenchus xylophilus (LC50 = 65.3 μM) at 72 h | 78 |
| Apiaceae (Cnidium monnieri; fruits) | Osthol (110) | China | Inhibitory effect against Bursaphelenchus xylophilus (LC50 = 266.0 μM) at 72 h | 82 |
| Moraceae (Ficus carica; leaves) | Psoralen (111) | China | Inhibitory effect against Bursaphelenchus xylophilus (LC50 = 258.8 mg/L), Caenorhabditis elegans (LC50 = 119.4 mg/L), and Panagrellus redivivus (LC50 = 181.1 mg/L) at 72 h | 83, 84 |
| Apiaceae (Angelica dahurica; roots) | Imperatorin (112) | China | Inhibitory effect against Bursaphelenchus xylophilus (LC50 = 132.0 μM) at 72 h | 82 |
| Apiaceae (Cnidium monnieri; fruits) | Xanthotoxin (113) | China | Inhibitory effect against Bursaphelenchus xylophilus (LC50 = 253.0 μM) at 72 h | 82 |
| Apiaceae (Cnidium monnieri; fruits) | Isopimpinellin (114) | China | Inhibitory effect against Bursaphelenchus xylophilus (LC50 = 375.0 μM) at 72 h | 82 |
| Apiaceae (Cnidium monnieri; fruits) | Cindimine (115) | China | Inhibitory effect against Bursaphelenchus xylophilus (LC50 = 64.0 μM) at 72 h | 82 |
| Apiaceae (Notopterygium incisum; rhizome) | Columbianetin (116) | China | Inhibitory effect against Bursaphelenchus xylophilus (LC50 = 103.4 μg/mL) and Meloidogyne incognita (LC50 = 30.9 μg/mL) at 72 h | 59, 60 |
| Apiaceae (Cnidium monnieri; fruits) | Marmesin (117) | China | Inhibitory effect against Bursaphelenchus xylophilus (LC50 = 500.0 μM) at 72 h | 82 |
| Apiaceae (Angelica dahurica; roots) | Isoimperatorin (118) | China | Inhibitory effect against Bursaphelenchus xylophilus (LC50 = 160.0 μM) at 72 h | 82 |
| Apiaceae (Heracleum candicans; roots) | 8‐Geranyloxypsoralen (119) | China | Inhibitory effect against Bursaphelenchus xylophilus (LC50 = 188.30 mg/L) and Panagrellus redivivus (LC50 = 117.5 mg/L) at 72 h | 85 |
| Apiaceae (Heracleum candicans; roots) | Imperatorin (120) | China | Inhibitory effect against Bursaphelenchus xylophilus (LC50 = 161.7 mg/L) and Panagrellus redivivus (LC50 = 179.0 mg/L) at 72 h | 85 |
| Apiaceae (Heracleum candicans; roots) | Heraclenin (121) | China | Inhibitory effect against Bursaphelenchus xylophilus (LC50 = 114.7 mg/L) and Panagrellus redivivus (LC50 = 148.7 mg/L) at 72 h | 85 |
| Thiophenes | ||||
| Asteraceae (Adenophyllum aurantium; aerial) | α‐Terthienyl (122) | Mexico | 99.4% mortality against Nacobbus aberrans at 100 μg/mL over 36 h | 86 |
| Asteraceae (Coreopsis lanceolata; flowers) | 5‐Phenyl‐2‐(19‐propynyl)‐thiophene (123) | Japan | 100.0 and 99.0% growth inhibition against Bursaphelenchus xylophilus and Caenorhabditis elegans at 2 mM concentration over 48 h, respectively | 87 |
| Asteraceae (Coreopsis lanceolata; flowers) | 2‐(3′‐Acetoxy‐1′‐propynyl)‐5‐phenylthiophene (124) | Japan | 16.0% growth inhibition against Caenorhabditis elegans at 2 mM concentration over 48 h | 87 |
| Asteraceae (Artemisia absinthium; roots) | Artabsithiophene A (125) | China | Inhibitory effect against Meloidogyne incognita (LC50 = 2.69 mg/L) at 24 h | 88 |
| Asteraceae (Artemisia absinthium; roots) | Artabsithiophene B (126) | China | Inhibitory effect against Meloidogyne incognita (LC50 = 4.17 mg/L) at 24 h | 88 |
| Asteraceae (Artemisia absinthium; roots) | Methyl (E)‐3‐(5‐ (prop‐1‐yn‐1‐yl) thiophen‐2‐yl) acrylate (127) | China | Inhibitory effect against Meloidogyne incognita (LC50 = 6.13 mg/L) at 24 h | 88 |
| Asteraceae (Artemisia absinthium; roots) | Trans‐dehydromatricaria ester (128) | China | Inhibitory effect against Meloidogyne incognita (LC50 = 7.65 mg/L) at 24 h | 88 |
| Asteraceae (Artemisia absinthium; roots) | Rhapontiynethiophenes A (129) | China | Inhibitory effect against Meloidogyne incognita (LC50 = 27.8 mg/L) at 24 h | 88 |
| Asteraceae (Artemisia absinthium; roots) | 5‐(3‐Hydroxmethyl‐3‐isovaleroyloxyprop‐1‐ynyl)‐ 2,2′‐bithiophene (130) | China | Inhibitory effect against Meloidogyne incognita (LC50 = 12.25 mg/L) at 24 h | 88 |
| Asteraceae (Artemisia absinthium; roots) | 5‐(3,4‐Diacetoxybut‐1‐ynyl)‐ 2,2′‐bithiophene (131) | China | Inhibitory effect against Meloidogyne incognita (LC50 = 16.37 mg/L) at 24 h | 88 |
| Asteraceae (Artemisia absinthium; roots) | 5‐(3‐Acetoxy‐4‐isovaleroyloxybut‐1‐ynyl)‐2,2′‐bithiophene (132) | China | Inhibitory effect against Meloidogyne incognita (LC50 = 22.45 mg/L) at 24 h | 88 |
| Asteraceae (Echinops grijsii; roots) | Echinothiophene A (133) | China | Inhibitory effect against Meloidogyne incognita (LC50 = 0.42 (light) and 1.44 (dark) μg/mL) at 24 h | 89 |
| Asteraceae (Echinops grijsii; roots) | Echinothiophene B (134) | China | Inhibitory effect against Meloidogyne incognita (LC50 = 2.65 (light) and 9.23 (dark) μg/mL) at 24 h | 89 |
| Asteraceae (Echinops grijsii; roots) | Echinothiophene C (135) | China | Inhibitory effect against Meloidogyne incognita (LC50 = 16.55 (light) and 18.17 (dark) μg/mL) at 24 h | 89 |
| Asteraceae (Echinops grijsii; roots) | Echinothiophene D (136) | China | Inhibitory effect against Meloidogyne incognita (LC50 = 2.57 (light) and 1.80 (dark) μg/mL) at 24 h | 89 |
| Asteraceae (Echinops grijsii; roots) | Echinothiophene E (137) | China | Inhibitory effect against Meloidogyne incognita (LC50 = 8.28 (light) and 9.12 (dark) μg/mL) at 24 h | 89 |
| Asteraceae (Echinops grijsii; roots) | Echinothiophene F (138) | China | Inhibitory effect against Meloidogyne incognita (LC50 = 20.13 (light) and 18.41 (dark) μg/mL) at 24 h | 89 |
| Asteraceae (Echinops grijsii; roots) | Arctinol‐b (139) | China | Inhibitory effect against Meloidogyne incognita (LC50 = 13.48 (light) and 14.72 (dark) μg/mL) at 24 h | 89 |
| Asteraceae (Echinops grijsii; roots) | 2‐Prop‐1‐inyl‐5′‐(2‐hydroxy‐3‐chloropropyl) dithiophene (140) | China | Inhibitory effect against Meloidogyne incognita (LC50 = 0.91 (light) and 0.86 (dark) μg/mL) at 24 h | 89 |
| Asteraceae (Echinops grijsii; roots) | 6‐Methoxy‐arctinol‐b (141) | China | Inhibitory effect against Meloidogyne incognita (LC50 = 5.83 (light) and 7.05 (dark) μg/mL) at 24 h | 89 |
| Asteraceae (Echinops grijsii; roots) | Arctinol (142) | China | Inhibitory effect against Meloidogyne incognita (LC50 = 15.90 (light) and 17.82 (dark) μg/mL) at 24 h | 89 |
| Asteraceae (Echinops grijsii; roots) | Arctinone‐b (143) | China | Inhibitory effect against Meloidogyne incognita (LC50 = 1.14 (light) and 2.00 (dark) μg/mL) at 24 h | 89 |
| Asteraceae (Echinops grijsii; roots) | Arctinal (144) | China | Inhibitory effect against Meloidogyne incognita (LC50 = 2.62 (light) and 8.75 (dark) μg/mL) at 24 h | 89 |
| Asteraceae (Echinops latifolius; roots) | Echinbithiophenedimer A (145) | China | Inhibitory effect against Meloidogyne incognita (LC50 = 16.53 (light) and 18.17 (dark) μg/mL) at 48 h | 90 |
| Asteraceae (Echinops latifolius; roots) | Echinbithiophenedimer B (146) | China | Inhibitory effect against Meloidogyne incognita (LC50 = 13.88 (light) and 16.28 (dark) μg/mL) at 48 h | 90 |
| Asteraceae (Echinops latifolius; roots) | Echinbithiophenedimer C (147) | China | Inhibitory effect against Meloidogyne incognita (LC50 = 8.73 (light) and 9.39 (dark) μg/mL) at 48 h | 90 |
| Annonaceous acetogenins | ||||
| Annonaceae (Annona squamosa; seeds) | Squamocin‐L (148) | Vietnam | Inhibitory effect against Bursaphelenchus xylophilus (LC50 = 18.0 ng/mL) at 48 h | 91 |
| Annonaceae (Annona squamosa; seeds) | Squamocin‐M (149) | Vietnam | Inhibitory effect against Bursaphelenchus xylophilus (LC50 = 24.0 ng/mL) at 48 h | 91 |
| Annonaceae (Annona squamosa; seeds) | Squamocin‐G (150) | Vietnam | Inhibitory effect against Bursaphelenchus xylophilus (LC50 = 8.0 ng/mL) at 48 h | 91 |
| Annonaceae (Annona squamosa; seeds) | Squamocin‐H (151) | Vietnam | Inhibitory effect against Bursaphelenchus xylophilus (LC50 = 12.0 ng/mL) at 48 h | 91 |
| Annonaceae (Annona squamosa; seeds) | Squamocin (152) | Vietnam | Inhibitory effect against Bursaphelenchus xylophilus (LC50 = 6.0 ng/mL) at 48 h | 91 |
| Annonaceae (Annona squamosa; seeds) | Squamocin‐J (153) | Vietnam | Inhibitory effect against Bursaphelenchus xylophilus (LC50 = 25.0 ng/mL) at 48 h | 91 |
| Annonaceae (Annona squamosa; seeds) | Squamocin‐K (154) | Vietnam | Inhibitory effect against Bursaphelenchus xylophilus (LC50 = 39.0 ng/mL) at 48 h | 91 |
| Annonaceae (Annona squamosa; seeds) | Squamostatin‐A (155) | Vietnam | Inhibitory effect against Bursaphelenchus xylophilus (LC50 = 48.0 ng/mL) at 48 h | 91 |
| Annonaceae (Annona squamosa; seeds) | Annotemoyin‐1 (156) | Vietnam | Inhibitory effect against Bursaphelenchus xylophilus (LC50 = 947.0 ng/mL) at 48 h | 91 |
| Annonaceae (Annona squamosa; seeds) | Solamin (157) | Vietnam | Inhibitory effect against Bursaphelenchus xylophilus (LC50 ≥ 1000.0 ng/mL) at 48 h | 91 |
| Annonaceae (Annona squamosa; seeds) | Acetogenin (158) | Brazil | 100% egg hatch inhibition against H. contortus at 25 mg/mL over 48 h | 92 |
| Dichapetalins | ||||
| Dichapetalaceae (Dichapetalum gelonioides; stem bark) | 22‐Deoxydichapetalin P (159) | China | 7.0% mortality against Panagrellus redivivus at 100 μg/mL over 72 h | 93 |
| Dichapetalaceae (Dichapetalum gelonioides; stem bark) | 25‐De‐O‐acetyldichapetalin P (160) | China | 46.3% mortality against Panagrellus redivivus at 100 μg/mL over 72 h | 93 |
| Dichapetalaceae (Dichapetalum gelonioides; stem bark) | Dichapetalin U (161) | China | 20.5% mortality against Panagrellus redivivus at 100 μg/mL over 72 h | 93 |
| Dichapetalaceae (Dichapetalum gelonioides; stem bark) | 22‐Deoxy‐4″‐methoxydichapetalin V (162) | China | 4.8% mortality against Panagrellus redivivus at 100 μg/mL over 72 h | 93 |
| Dichapetalaceae (Dichapetalum gelonioides; stem bark) | Dichapetalin W (163) | China | 7.8% mortality against Panagrellus redivivus at 100 μg/mL over 72 h | 93 |
| Dichapetalaceae (Dichapetalum gelonioides; stem bark) | 4′′‐Demethoxy‐7‐dihydrodichapetalin W (164) | China | 61.8% mortality against Panagrellus redivivus at 100 μg/mL over 72 h | 93 |
| Dichapetalaceae (Dichapetalum gelonioides; stem bark) | 7‐Dehydrodichapetalin E (165) | China | 2.5% mortality against Panagrellus redivivus at 100 μg/mL over 72 h | 93 |
| Dichapetalaceae (Dichapetalum gelonioides; stem bark) | 21‐Dehyrodichapetalin Q (166) | China | 3.0% mortality against Panagrellus redivivus at 100 μg/mL over 72 h | 93 |
| Dichapetalaceae (Dichapetalum gelonioides; stem bark) | Dichapetalin A (167) | China | 15.3% mortality against Panagrellus redivivus at 100 μg/mL over 72 h | 93 |
| Dichapetalaceae (Dichapetalum gelonioides; stem bark) | Dichapetalin K (168) | China | 4.4% mortality against Panagrellus redivivus at 100 μg/mL over 72 h | 93 |
| Simple phenols and phenolic acids | ||||
| Anacardiaceae (Lithraea molleoides; aerial) | (Z,Z)‐5‐(Trideca‐4,7‐dienyl)resorcinol (169) | United States | 33.3% lethality against Caenorhabditis elegans at 50 μg/mL over 24 h | 94 |
| Anacardiaceae (Lithraea molleoides; aerial) | (Z,Z,Z)‐5‐(Trideca‐4,7,10‐trienyl)‐ resorcinol (170) | United States | 33.3% lethality against Caenorhabditis elegans at 50 μg/mL over 24 h | 94 |
| Anacardiaceae (Lithraea molleoides; aerial) | (Z,Z,E)‐5‐(Trideca‐4,7,10‐trienyl)resorcinol (171) | United States | 33.3% lethality against Caenorhabditis elegans at 50 μg/mL over 24 h | 94 |
| Anacardiaceae (Lithraea molleoides; aerial) | (Z)‐5‐(Trideca‐4‐enyl)resorcinol (172) | United States | 76.5% lethality against Caenorhabditis elegans at 50 μg/mL over 24 h | 94 |
| Zingiberaceae (Kaempferia galanga; roots and rhizome) | Ethyl trans‐cinnamate (173) | Korea | Meloidogyne incognita LC50 = 37.0 μg/mL at 48 h; 100% mortality at 60 μg/mL over 4 h | 95, 96 |
| Zingiberaceae (Kaempferia galanga; roots and rhizome) | Ethyl p‐methoxycinnamate (174) | Korea | Meloidogyne incognita LC50 = 41.0 μg/mL at 48 h; 100% mortality at 60 μg/mL over 4 h | 95, 96 |
| Boreginaceae (Cordia latifolia; leaves) | Cordicilin (175) | Pakistan | 100% mortality against Meloidogyne incognita at 0.5% concentration over 24 h | 69 |
| Boreginaceae (Cordia latifolia; fruits) | Rosmarinic acid (176) | Pakistan China | Inhibitory effect against Bursaphelenchus xylophilus (EC50 = 0.95 mg/mL) at 72 h; 80.0% mortality against Meloidogyne incognita at 0.5% concentration over 72 h | 69, 97 |
| Boreginaceae (Cordia latifolia; fruits) | Latifolicinin A (177) | Pakistan | 100% mortality against Meloidogyne incognita at 0.125% concentration over 72 h | 69 |
| Boreginaceae (Cordia latifolia; fruits) | Latifolicinin B (178) | Pakistan | 100% mortality against Meloidogyne incognita at 0.125% concentration over 72 h | 69 |
| Boreginaceae (Cordia latifolia; fruits) | Latifolicinin C (179) | Pakistan | 100% mortality against Meloidogyne incognita at 0.125% concentration over 72 h | 69 |
| Boreginaceae (Cordia latifolia; fruits) | Latifolicinin D (180) | Pakistan | 100% mortality against Meloidogyne incognita at 0.125% concentration over 72 h | 69 |
| Stemonaceae (Stemona parviflora; roots) | (E)‐4‐hydroxycinnamic acid methyl ester (181) | China | Inhibitory effect against Meloidogyne incognita (IC50 = 1.07 μM) at 24 h | 9, 10 |
| Myristicaceae (Knema hookeriana; stem bark) | 3‐Undecylphenol (182) | Indonesia | Inhibits Bursaphelenchus xylophilus 4.5 μg minimum effective dose/cotton ball | 98 |
| Myristicaceae (Knema hookeriana; stem bark) | 3‐(8Z‐tridecenyl)‐phenol (183) | Indonesia | Inhibits Bursaphelenchus xylophilus 20 μg minimum effective dose/cotton ball | 98 |
| Rosaceae (Rubus niveus; aerial) | 3,5‐ dihydroxy benzoic acid (184) | Pakistan | 100% mortality against Meloidogyne incognita at 0.5% concentration over 48 h | 99, 100 |
| Rosaceae (Rubus niveus; aerial) | Gallic acid (185) | Pakistan | 94.0% mortality against Meloidogyne incognita at 0.5% concentration over 48 h | 99, 100 |
| Scrophulariaceae (Buddleja crispa; aerial) | Methyl benzoate (186) | Pakistan | 92.0% mortality against Meloidogyne incognita at 0.5% concentration over 48 h | 99, 100 |
| Scrophulariaceae (Buddleja crispa; aerial) | 3‐Methoxy‐4‐hydroxy benzoic acid (187) | Pakistan | 40.0% mortality against Meloidogyne incognita at 0.5% concentration over 48 h | 99, 100 |
| Boreginaceae (Cordia latifolia; leaves) | Cordicinol (188) | Pakistan | 100% mortality against Meloidogyne incognita at 0.125% concentration over 72 h | 69 |
| Asteraceae (Galinsoga parviflora; whole plant) | 4‐Hydroxybenzoic acid (189) | Pakistan | 70.0 and 90.0% mortality against Cephalobus litoralis and Meloidogyne incognita, respectively, at 1% concentration over 48 h | 101, 102 |
| Asteraceae (Galinsoga parviflora; whole plant) | 3,4‐Dihydroxybenzoic acid (190) | Pakistan; Korea | 68.0 and 80.0% mortality against Cephalobus litoralis and Meloidogyne incognita, respectively, at 1% concentration over 48 h | 101, 102, 103 |
| Thymelaeceae (Daphne acutiloba; stem bark) | Daphneone 2 (191) | China | 49.2% lethality against Meloidogyne incognita at 25 μg/mL over 24 h | 104 |
| Thymelaeceae (Daphne acutiloba; stem bark) | Daphneolon (192) | China | 70.6% lethality against Meloidogyne incognita mortality at 25 μg/mL over 24 h | 104 |
| Thymelaeceae (Daphne acutiloba; stem bark) | Daphnodorin A (193) | China | 40.2% lethality against Meloidogyne incognita mortality at 25 μg/mL over 24 h | 104 |
| Thymelaeceae (Daphne acutiloba; stem bark) | Daphnodorin B (194) | China | 45.6% lethality against Meloidogyne incognita mortality at 25 μg/mL over 24 h | 104 |
| Anacardiaceae (Schinus terebinthifolius; leaves) | Methylgallate (195) | Egypt | 21.0% lethality against Meloidogyne incognita mortality at 200 μg/mL over 72 h | 105 |
| Anacardiaceae (Schinus terebinthifolius; leaves) | Protocatechuic acid (190) | Egypt | 13.0% lethality against Meloidogyne incognita mortality at 200 μg/mL over 72 h | 105 |
| Stemonaceae (Stemona parviflora; roots) | 4‐Hydroxy‐benzenepropanol‐α‐benzoate (196) | China | Inhibitory effect against Meloidogyne incognita (IC50 = 4.2 μM) at 24 h | 9, 10 |
| Myrtaceae (Syzygium aromaticum; flower buds) | p‐Methyl benzoic acid (197) | Pakistan | 92.0% mortality against Meloidogyne incognita at 1% concentration over 72 h | 72 |
| Anacardiaceae (Schinus terebinthifolius; leaves) | 1,2,3,4,6‐Pentagalloyl glucose (198) | Egypt | 13.0% lethality against Meloidogyne incognita mortality at 200 μg/mL over 72 h | 105 |
| Lythraceae (Punica granatum; pomegranate rind) | Corilagin (199) | China | Inhibitory effect against Bursaphelenchus xylophilus (IC50 = 868.3 μM) at 72 h | 106 |
| Miscellaneous compounds | ||||
| Myrtaceae (Eucalyptus exserta; stem bark) | (24R)‐24‐Ethyl‐ 5α‐cholestane‐3β,5α,6β‐triol (200) | China | 13.9% mortality against Meloidogyne incognita at 100 mg/mL over 48 h | 77 |
| Myrtaceae (Eucalyptus exserta; stem bark) | β‐sitosterol xyloside (201) | China | 33.6% mortality against Meloidogyne incognita at 100 mg/mL over 48 h | 77 |
| Fumariaceae (Fumaria parviflora; roots) | 23a‐Homostigmast‐5‐en‐3β‐ol (202) | Pakistan | 90.3 and 100% egg hatch inhibition and mortality, respectively, against Meloidogyne incognita at 200 μg/mL over 24 h | 107 |
| Asteraceae (Adenophyllum aurantium; aerial) | Stigmasterol (203) | Mexico | 93.3% mortality against Nacobbus aberrans at 100 μg/mL over 72 h | 86 |
| Apocynaceae (Nerium indicum; branch) | 3β‐O‐(β‐D‐diginosyl)‐14,15α‐dihydroxy‐5α‐card‐20(22)‐enolide (204) | China | Inhibitory effect against Bursaphelenchus xylophilus (LC50 = 103.3 mg/L); Caenorhabditis elegans (LC50 = 45.4 mg/L) and Panagrellus redivivus (LC50 = 49.0 mg/L) at 72 h | 108 |
| Apocynaceae (Nerium indicum; branch) | Uzarigenin (205) | China | Inhibitory effect against Bursaphelenchus xylophilus (LC50 = 257.0 mg/L); Caenorhabditis elegans (LC50 = 177.8 mg/L) and Panagrellus redivivus (LC50 = 62.7 mg/L) at 72 h | 108 |
| Apocynaceae (Nerium indicum; branch) | Cardenolide N‐1 (206) | China | Inhibitory effect against Bursaphelenchus xylophilus (LC50 = 242.9 mg/L), Caenorhabditis elegans (LC50 = 41.7 mg/L), and Panagrellus redivivus (LC50 = 29.1 mg/L) at 72 h | 108 |
| Rutaceae (Evodia rutaecarpa; fruits) | Evodol (207) | China | Inhibitory effect against Meloidogyne incognita (LC50 = 155.0 μg/mL at 72 h) | 51 |
| Rutaceae (Evodia rutaecarpa; fruits) | Limonin (208) | China | Inhibitory effect against Meloidogyne incognita (LC50 = 197.4 μg/mL at 72 h) | 51 |
| Magnoliaceae (Magnolia grandiflora; leaves) | 4,5‐Epoxy‐1(10)E,11(13)‐germacradien‐12,6‐olide (209) | China | Inhibitory effect against Panagrellus redivivus (LC50 = 46.0 mg/mL at 48 h) and Bursaphelenchus xylophilus (LC50 = 71.0 mg/mL at 48 h) | 109 |
| Euphorbiaceae (Euphorbia kansui; roots) | 3‐O‐(2′′,3′′‐Dimethylbutanoyl)‐13‐O‐dodecanoylingenol (210) | China | Inhibitory effect against Bursaphelenchus xylophilus (MED = 5 μg minimum effective dose/cotton ball) | 110 |
| Euphorbiaceae (Euphorbia kansui; roots) | 3‐O‐(2′′,3′′‐dimethylbutanoyl)‐13‐O‐decanoylingenol (211) | China | Inhibitory effect against Bursaphelenchus xylophilus (MED = 5 μg minimum effective dose/cotton ball) | 110 |
| Boreginaceae (Cordia latifolia; stem bark) | Cordioic acid (212) | Pakistan | 100% mortality against Meloidogyne incognita at 0.5% concentration over 24 h | 69 |
| Boreginaceae (Cordia latifolia; stem bark) | Cordifolic acid (213) | Pakistan | 100% mortality against Meloidogyne incognita at 0.5% concentration over 48 h | 69 |
| Boreginaceae (Cordia latifolia; stem bark) | Cordinol (214) | Pakistan | 100% mortality against Meloidogyne incognita at 0.5% concentration over 72 h | 69 |
| Asteraceae (Galinsoga parviflora; whole plant) | β‐Sitosterol (215) | Pakistan | 58.0 and 70.0% mortality against Cephalobus litoralis and Meloidogyne incognita at 1% concentration over 48 h, respectively | 101, 102 |
| Asteraceae (Galinsoga parviflora; whole plant) | β‐Sitosterol 3‐O‐β‐D‐glucopyranoside (216) | Pakistan | 70.0% mortality against Cephalobus litoralis at 1% concentration over 48 h | 101, 102 |
| Asparagaceae (Liriope muscari; roots) | 1β,6β‐Dihydroxy‐cis‐eudesm‐3‐ene‐6‐O‐β‐D‐glucopyranoside (217) | China | Inhibitory effect against Bursaphelenchus xylophilus (LC50 = 153.4 μg/mL at 72 h) | 111 |
| Asparagaceae (Liriope muscari; roots) | 1α,6β‐Dihydroxy‐cis‐eudesm‐3‐ene‐6‐O‐β‐D‐glucopyranoside (218) | China | Inhibitory effect against Bursaphelenchus xylophilus (LC50 = 82.8 μg/mL at 72 h) | 111 |
| Asparagaceae (Liriope muscari; roots) | 1,4‐Epoxy‐cis‐eudesm‐6‐O‐β‐D‐glucopyranoside (219) | China | Inhibitory effect against Bursaphelenchus xylophilus (LC50 = 339.8 μg/mL at 72 h) | 111 |
| Polygonaceae (Rheum emodi; rhizome) | Physcion (220) | India | Inhibitory effect against Meloidogyne incognita (LC50 = 102.61 mg/L) at 72 h | 112 |
| Polygonaceae (Rheum emodi; rhizome) | Aloe‐emodin (221) | India | Inhibitory effect against Meloidogyne incognita (LC50 = 148.50 mg/L) at 72 h | 112 |
| Polygonaceae (Rheum emodi; RHIZOME) | Chrysophanol (222) | India | Inhibitory effect against Meloidogyne incognita (LC50 = 102.59 mg/L) at 72 h | 112 |
| Polygonaceae (Rheum emodi; rhizome) | Emodin (223) | India | Inhibitory effect against Meloidogyne incognita (LC50 = 139.95 mg/L) at 72 h | 112 |
| Apiaceae (Apium graveolens; seeds) | Sedanolide (224) | United State | 100.0 and 100.0% mortality against Caenorhabditis elegans (at 50 μg/mL) and Panagrellus redivivus (at 20 μg/mL), respectively, over 48 h | 113 |
| Apiaceae (Apium graveolens; seeds) | Senkyunolide N (225) | United State | 100% mortality against Panagrellus redivivus at 100 μg/mL over 24 h | 113 |
| Apiaceae (Apium graveolens; seeds) | Senkyunolide J (226) | United State | 100% mortality against Panagrellus redivivus at 100 μg/mL over 24 h | 113 |
| Stemonaceae (Stemona parviflora; roots) | Parviphenanthrine A (227) | China | Inhibitory effect against Meloidogyne incognita (LC50 = 14.0 𝜇M) at 24 h | 9, 10 |
| Stemonaceae (Stemona parviflora; roots) | Parviphenanthrine E (228) | China | Inhibitory effect against Meloidogyne incognita (LC50 = 2.5 𝜇M) at 24 h | 9, 10 |
| Stemonaceae (Stemona parviflora; roots) | Stemanthrene A (229) | China | Inhibitory effect against Meloidogyne incognita (LC50 = 17.1 𝜇M) at 24 h | 9, 10 |
| Lamiaceae (Lavandula luisieri, aerial) | 3,4,5,5‐Tetramethylcyclopenta‐1,3‐dienecarboxylic acid (230) | Spain | 53.9% mortality against Meloidogyne javanica at 0.5 μg/mL over 72 h | 114 |
| Lamiaceae (Lavandula luisieri, aerial) | 3,3,4,5‐Tetramethyl‐2H‐pyran‐2,6(3H)‐dione (231) | Spain | Inhibitory effect against Meloidogyne javanica (LD50 = 0.24 μg/μL at 72 h) | 114 |
| Asteraceae (Heterotheca inuloides; flowers) | 7‐Hydroxycadalene (232) | Mexico | Inhibitory effect against Nacobbus aberrans (LC50 = 31.30 mg/mL at 72 h) | 115 |
| Asteraceae (Heterotheca inuloides; flowers) | (4R)‐7‐hydroxy‐3,4‐dihydrocadalene (233) | Mexico | Inhibitory effect against Nacobbus aberrans (LC50 = 26.30 mg/mL at 72 h) | 115 |
| Asteraceae (Artemisia dubia; whole plant) | 1β,2α‐dihydroxyeudesma‐4(15),11(12)‐dien‐13‐oic acid methyl ester (234) | China | Inhibitory effect against Meloidogyne incognita (LC50 = 38.43 mg/L at 24 h) | 116 |
| Asteraceae (Pulicaria insignis; aerial) | Pulisignoside C (235) | China | Inhibitory effect against Meloidogyne incognita (IC50 = 25.42 μM at 24 h) | 117 |
| Lamiaceae Leonotis Leonurus; leaves) | Leoleorin C (236) | South Africa | 34.1% mortality Caenorhabditis elegans at 0.5 mg/mL over 48 h | 118 |
| Lythraceae (Punica granatum; pomegranate rind) | Punicalin (237) | China | Inhibitory effect against Bursaphelenchus xylophilus (IC50 = 827.0 μM) at 72 h | 106 |
| Lythraceae (Punica granatum; pomegranate rind) | Punicalagin (238) | China | Inhibitory effect against Bursaphelenchus xylophilus (IC50 = 307.1 μM) at 72 h | 106 |
| Piperaceae (Peperomia japonica; whole plant) | Peperomianone (239) | Japan | Inhibitory effect against Caenorhabditis elegans (LC50 = 27.1 μM) at 72 h | 119 |
| Piperaceae (Peperomia japonica; whole plant) | 4‐ Hydroxy‐2‐[(3,4‐methylenedioxyphenyl)undecanoyl]cyclohexane‐1,3‐ dione (240) | Japan | Inhibitory effect against Caenorhabditis elegans (LC50 = 43.0 μM) at 72 h | 119 |
| Asteraceae (Coreopsis lanceolata; flowers) | 1‐Phenylhepta‐1,3,5‐triyne (241) | Japan | 89.0% growth inhibition against Caenorhabditis elegans at 2 mM concentration over 48 h | 87 |
| Asteraceae (Galinsoga parviflora; whole plant) | Octacosanoic acid (242) | Pakistan | 60.0 and 82.0% mortality against Cephalobus litoralis and Meloidogyne incognita, respectively, at 1% concentration over 48 h | 101, 102 |
| Myrtaceae (Eucalyptus exserta; stem bark) | 2,6‐Dimethoxy‐1,4‐benzoquinone (243) | China | 86.0% mortality against Meloidogyne incognita at 100 mg/mL over 48 h | 77 |
| Myrtaceae (Eucalyptus exserta; stem bark) | 3,3′‐Di‐O‐methylellagic acid (244) | China | 79.9% mortality against Meloidogyne incognita at 100 mg/mL over 48 h | 77 |
| Myrtaceae (Syzygium aromaticum; flower buds) | 3,4,5‐Trimethoxy‐3′,4′‐O,O‐methylideneflavellagic acid (245) | Pakistan | 84.0% mortality against Meloidogyne incognita at 0.125% concentration over 72 h | 72 |
| Myrtaceae (Eucalyptus exserta; Stem bark) | 1,3,8,9‐ Tetrahydroxydibenzo[b,d]pyran‐6‐one (246) | China | 100% mortality against Meloidogyne incognita at 100 mg/mL over 48 h | 77 |
| Myrtaceae (Eucalyptus exserta; stem bark) | 1‐Monopalmitin (247) | China | 77.0% mortality against Meloidogyne incognita at 100 mg/mL over 48 h | 77 |
| Myrtaceae (Eucalyptus exserta; stem bark) | Yangambin (248) | China | 85.2% mortality against Meloidogyne incognita at 100 mg/mL over 48 h | 77 |
| Fumariaceae (Fumaria parviflora; roots) | Nonacosane‐10‐ol (249) | Pakistan | 95.0 and 100% egg hatch inhibition and mortality, respectively, against Meloidogyne incognita at 200 μg/mL over 24 h | 107 |
| Apiaceae (Notopterygium incisum; rhizome) | Falcarindiol (250) | China | Inhibitory effect against Bursaphelenchus xylophilus (LC50 = 2.20 μg/mL) and Meloidogyne incognita (LC50 = 1.08 μg/mL) at 72 h | 59, 60 |
| Apiaceae (Notopterygium incisum; rhizome) | Falcarinol (251) | China | Inhibitory effect against Bursaphelenchus xylophilus (LC50 = 12.61 μg/mL) and Meloidogyne incognita (LC50 = 4.96 μg/mL) at 72 h | 56, 57, 59, 60 |
| Stemonaceae (Stemona parviflora; roots) | Stilbostenin E (252) | China | Inhibitory effect against Panagrellus redivivus (IC50 = 2.05 μM) at 72 h | 9, 10 |
| Lauraceae (Persea indica; roots) | (+)‐Majorynolide (253) | Spain | Inhibitory effect against Meloidogyne javanica (LD50 = 0.18 mg/mL) at 72 h | 120 |
| Asteraceae (Tanacetum falconeri; aerial) | cis‐Dehydrometricaria ester (254) | Pakistan | 100% mortality against Meloidogyne incognita at 1% concentration over 48 h | 121 |
| Asteraceae (Artemisia halodendron; roots) | Artehaloyn A (255) | China | Inhibitory effect against Meloidogyne javanica (LC50 = 0.21 mg/mL) at 48 h | 122 |
| Asteraceae (Artemisia halodendron; roots) | Artehaloyn B (256) | China | Inhibitory effect against Meloidogyne javanica (LC50 = 1.996 mg/mL) at 48 h | 122 |
| Asteraceae (Artemisia halodendron; roots) | (3R,8S)‐Heptadeca‐1,16‐ dien‐4,6‐diyne‐3,8‐diol (257) | China | Inhibitory effect against Meloidogyne javanica (LC50 = 2.495 mg/mL) at 48 h | 122 |
| Asteraceae (Artemisia halodendron; roots) | Dehydrofalcarinol (258) | China | Inhibitory effect against Meloidogyne javanica (LC50 = 3.327 mg/mL) at 48 h | 122 |
| Asteraceae (Senecio sinuato; roots) | 3β‐Angeloyloxy‐6β‐hydroxyfuranoeremophil‐1(10)‐ene (259) | Mexico | 25.0% immobility of Nacobbus aberrans at 100 μg/mL concentration over 36 h | 123 |
| Apiaceae (Seseli mairei; roots) | (E)‐2‐ Decenal (260) | China | Inhibitory effect against Bursaphelenchus xylophilus (LC50 = 176.34 μg/mL) at 72 h | 56, 57 |
| Apiaceae (Seseli mairei; roots) | Octanoic acid (261) | China | Inhibitory effect against Bursaphelenchus xylophilus (LC50 = 65.56 μg/mL) at 72 h | 56, 57 |
| Phyllanthaceae (Actephila merrilliana; leaves) | 2‐Naphthol (262) | China | Inhibitory effect against Meloidogyne incognita (EC50 = 38.00 μg/mL) at 72 h | 17 |
LC50, 50% lethal concentration; LD50, 50% lethal dose; EC50, 50% effective concentration; ED50, 50% effective dose; IC50, 50% inhibitory concentration; MED, minimum effective dose.
3. RESULTS AND CONCLUSIONS
3.1. Extraction, isolation, and characterization of nematicidal compounds from plants
Conventional extraction methods were the most commonly used extraction techniques for obtaining the plant crude extracts (Supporting Information, Fig. S1 and Table S1). Maceration technique, for instance, was applied to obtain extracts in 78% of the reviewed articles, followed by reflux and Soxhlet extraction methods with 7% and 5%, respectively (Supporting Information, Fig. S1). Extraction techniques are crucial for obtaining specific molecule(s) from plants since the constituents coexist in different plant parts, such as roots, stems, and leaves. Moreover, the extraction methods have a quantitative and qualitative impact on the extract composition. 124 , 125 , 126 , 127 Traditionally, solvent extraction or solid–liquid extraction techniques, such as refluxing using the Soxhlet apparatus, boiling the sample and solvent with or without stirring for a specific duration, or maceration, are widely employed to obtain plant extract. 128 , 129 , 130 During extraction, solvents with varying polarities, such as hexane, trichloromethane, ethyl acetate, acetone, butanol, ethanol, methanol, and water, or their mixtures, are utilized as the liquid phase. The extraction efficiency depends on the properties of the extraction solvent, particle size of the plant materials, solvent‐to‐solid ratio, extraction temperature and extraction duration. 126 , 129 , 131
Though the maceration technique is a simple, easy, and cheap extraction method, it is characterized by long extraction time, high solvent requirement, and low extraction efficiency. 132 Alcohols, especially ethanol and methanol, were the commonly employed solvents for the maceration procedure, often at room temperature (Supporting Information, Table S1). Solvents such as hexane, 75 , 123 ethyl acetate, 108 acetone, 115 , 116 and a mixture of methanol and dichloromethane (1:1) 94 were also utilized in the maceration technique (Supporting Information, Table S1). More than 60% of the reviewed articles that used the maceration extraction method reported less than 10% extract yield. The highest percentage yield (37.5%) was reported by Hernández‐Carlos et al. 73 for the crude extract from the roots of Sicyos bulbosus.
The reflux extraction method is reported to be more efficient for the extraction of bioactive chemicals compared to maceration and requires less extraction time and solvent. 132 However, high extraction temperature associated with the reflux method can degrade the thermally unstable plant metabolites and stir up the possibility of oxidation and hydrolysis of some phenolic compounds. All the reviewed articles that utilized reflux extraction techniques employed either ethanol 9 , 10 , 55 , 61 , 117 or methanol 74 as the extraction solvent. The percentage yields of the extracts were in the range of 6.2% 117 and 25%. 74
Soxhlet extraction is an automated continuous extraction technique that involves high temperature and requires less time and extraction solvent than maceration, influencing the extraction efficiency. However, high temperatures have been reported to affect the concentration of polyphenols and alkaloids in plants 133 and increase the tendency for thermal degradation. Considering the extract yield of 2.2% 58 and 3.8% 107 from the roots of Fumaria parviflora using methanol and hexane, respectively, it can be deduced that solvent polarity is an important factor in Soxhlet extraction method. Very limited articles (only four) reported the use of green or emerging extraction techniques, including ultrasonic‐assisted extraction, 82 , 83 microwave‐assisted extraction, 122 and supercritical fluid extraction 88 , 89 methods. These emerging techniques are characterized by lower operational temperatures, high selectivity, preservation of extract integrity, and the use of environmentally friendly solvents.
The remaining 10% of the published articles utilized ultrasonic‐assisted, microwave‐assisted, supercritical fluid, steam distillation, and cold extraction methods to obtain the constituent mixture 56 , 57 , 62 , 71 , 82 , 88 , 89 , 122 (Supporting Information, Fig. S1). These novel and more environmentally friendly extraction techniques, such as pulsed‐electric field extraction (PEFE), microwave‐assisted extraction (MAE), 131 , 132 pressurized liquid extraction (PLE), enzyme‐assisted extraction (EAE), and supercritical fluid extraction (SFE), have been shown to have some benefits over traditional methods for extracting constituents, including reduced consumption of organic solvents, shortened extraction times, and preservation of biological activity. 127 , 131 , 132 , 134 , 135
3.2. Plant chemistry and nematicidal activity
Through our investigation, 262 plant‐based natural compounds including alkaloids (1–43), terpenoids and saponins (44–87), flavonoids (88–107), coumarins (108–121), thiophenes (122–147), annonaceous acetogenins (148–158), dichapetalins (159–168), simple phenols and phenolic acids (169–199), and miscellaneous compounds (200–262) (encompassing classes of compounds that contained less than 10 individual chemicals) with nematicidal activity (Fig. 2) were identified. Their origin and nematicidal activity against the target organisms are reported in Table 1, and the chemical structures of tested compounds are depicted in Fig. 3. Only compounds with potent activity belonging to each group, as classified above, are discussed in the present review.
Figure 2.
Relative distribution of assessed naturally occurring nematicides.
Figure 3.
Chemical structures of nematicidal metabolites isolated from plant kingdoms.
Traditional techniques for the investigation of bioactive ingredients often involve the isolation (chromatography techniques) and characterization (spectroscopic and spectrometric methods) of compounds without prior knowledge of their biological activities. This can be both time and resource‐consuming. Since nematicidal activity is a specific biological effect, activity‐driven purification has enabled various research groups to isolate compounds against various plant‐parasitic soil nematodes precisely. A fundamental aspect of this process involves several steps, including sample screening, fractionation and isolation, identification of active ingredients, biological evaluation, and SAR. This targeted approach has made tremendous progress in the field, culminating in the discovery of novel and known selective nematicidal compounds from plant kingdoms. Even though this method can be advantageous, it may also yield individual compounds with a loss of synergistic effect that contributes to the overall effectiveness of the matrix. In addition, selectivity issues cannot be ignored as some isolates may not selectively target the nematodes of interest.
3.3. Alkaloids
Alkaloids are natural compounds bearing one or more nitrogen in their structure. 136 , 137 , 138 They are found in a wide range of sources (plants, fungi, and animals) and can be categorized based on various criteria, including chemical structure, biosynthetic origin, and pharmacological properties. 139 , 140 From a pharmacological standpoint, various alkaloids with nematicidal activity have been studied extensively for their potential as natural alternatives to synthetic pesticides. These compounds can interfere with various physiological processes in nematodes, leading to their death or inhibition of growth and reproduction. For instance, the mode of action of some alkaloids has been speculated as acetylcholinesterase inhibitors. 53 The anti‐nematodal alkaloids (1–43) were mostly present in various tissues (fruits, seeds, twigs and leaves, aerial parts, and roots) of plants belonging to the families Rutaceae (Clausena lansium, 63 , 64 Evodia rutaecarpa, 51 and Orixa japonica, 59 , 60 ), Taxaceae (Cephalotaxus fortunei 52 ), Malvaceae (Triumfetta grandidens and Waltheria indica 53 , 54 ), Stemonaceae (Stemona parviflora 55 , and Stemona mairei 56 , 57 ), Papaveraceae (F. parviflora 58 ), Rubiaceae (Uncaria rhynchophylla 61 ), Apocynaceae (Alstonia boonei 62 ), and Fabaceae (Piterogyne nitens 65 ).
Alkaloids isolated from the family Stemonaceae were found to be among the most efficient phytochemicals against free‐living nematodes such as Panagrellus redivivus and Caenorhabditis elegans. 55 , 56 , 57 Other plant species, such as C. fortunei, commonly called the Chinese plum‐yew, were also shown to contain the heptacyclic alkaloid drupacine (4). 52 Drupacine (4) showed immobilizing activity in a concentration‐dependent manner against mixed stages of the pinewood nematode (B. xylophilus) and second‐stage juveniles (J2s) of the root‐knot nematode Meloidogyne incognita (Chinese populations). The 50% effective concentration (ED50) of drupacine (4) for B. xylophilus was 27.1 μg/mL and for M. incognita was 76.3 μg/mL after 24 h of treatment. 52 Furthermore, the inhibitory effects of drupacine (4) against these nematodes were associated with changes (inhibition) of enzymatic activity (protease). 52
4‐Quinolone‐based agents have demonstrated nematotoxicity. 54 Nematicidal‐guided purification of the methanolic extract of the aerial part of T. grandidens (Malvaceae) afforded waltheriones A (5) and E (6), with high efficacy against M. incognita, with 50% effective concentration (EC50) values of 0.27 and 0.09 μg/mL at 48 h, respectively. In addition, after 7 days of exposure, these compounds decreased the number of eggs hatched by 87.4% and 91.9%, respectively. 53 In a subsequent study on W. indica (Malvaceae) roots, Jang and colleagues, in addition to waltheriones A (5) and E (6), also reported the nematicidal activity of waltherione C (7) against several nematodes. The nematicidal activities of 4‐quinolone alkaloids waltheriones A (5) and E (6) were comparable to those of abamectin (nematicidal agent) (EC50/72h = 0.04–0.11 μg/mL) against Meloidogyne arenaria, Meloidogyne hapla, M. incognita, and B. xylophilus. At the same time, waltherione C (7) was selective against root‐knot nematodes. 54 The nematicidal data of the waltherione derivatives, waltherione A (5) and waltherione E (6), enabled preliminary structure–activity relationship considerations. First, introducing a methoxy group in the aryl ring (C‐5′) to waltherione A (5) significantly increased the activity against tested nematodes for waltherione E (6). Second, the degree of oxygenation as well as the oxabicyclo[3.2.1]octane motif in waltheriones A (5) and E (6) vs. waltherione C (7) significantly increased the activity. The potent activity was observed for the quinolone‐type alkaloids, waltheriones A (5) and E (6), with a hydroxy group at C‐9, for the corresponding quinolone‐type alkaloid waltherione C (7), lacking a hydroxy group at C‐9 and possessing an oxygen bridge linked differently as compared to waltheriones A (5) and E (6).
Several studies have also demonstrated that Stemona genus alkaloids (8–20) may have nematicidal properties against worms such as P. redivivus and C. elegans in addition to their insecticidal effect. 55 , 66 Plants of the Stemona genus have been widely used as traditional medicines in China and some South Asian regions. Stemona genus alkaloids are a kind of complex alkaloid with a unique structure and multiple sterogenic centers. 141
The ethanolic extract obtained from the roots of S. parviflora harvested in China yielded four alkaloids (8–12). 55 3β‐n‐Butylstemonamine (8), (50% inhibitory concentration (IC50), IC50/24h = 42.5 μM), protostemonamide (9), (IC50/24h = 1.95 μM), and (+)‐oxystemofoline (11), (IC50/24h = 76.4 μM) exhibited lethality against P. redivivus superior to that of a currently used synthetic nematicide albendazole (IC50/24h = 67.2 μM). Protostemonine (10) and stemofoline (12) showed nematicidal activity, but it was significantly lower, with IC50/24h values of 0.10 and 0.46 μM, respectively. Stemona alkaloids (13–16) bearing a carboxylic side chain purified from the roots of S. mairei also exhibited significant nematicidal (50% lethal concentration [LC50], LC50/12h = 42.4–46.8 μM) activity compared to cyclic carboxylic esters (18–20), (LC50/12h > 76.00 μM) activity against C. elegans. In most cases, the nematicidal effect of the tested compounds (18–20) was less than that of abamectin (LC50/12h = 10.55 μM). 56 , 57
Tetracyclic indole alkaloids 17‐O‐methyl‐3,4,5,6‐tetradehydrogeissoschizine (24), dihydrocorynantheine (25), 4‐hirsuteine N‐oxide (26), corynantheine (27), gessoschizine methyl ether (28), and indole [23‐a] quinolizine‐a‐acetic acid (29) isolated from the aerial part of U. rhynchophylla exhibited various percentages of inhibitory activity against the free‐living nematode P. redivivus. 61
3.4. Terpenoids and saponins
Terpenoids represent one of the major classes of secondary metabolites largely found in the plant and animal kingdoms. 142 They are characterized by their multiple isoprene units, which are five‐carbon building blocks. Most plants produce large quantities of terpenoid compounds with roles that include phytohormones, which are important in development, reproduction, defense, and longevity. Some essential oil components such as terpenes and phenylpropenes have been shown to have a significant potential in pest management. 143 Saponins are toxic plant‐derived organic chemicals containing a steroid or triterpenoid aglycone (sapogenin) connected to one or more sugar units. Many terpenoids and their glycosylated analogs are active against pests and pathogens and have been reported to show nemastatic and nematicidal effects.
Based on our literature search, terpenoids (44–67) and their glycosides (68–87) were predominantly found in aerial tissues including flowers, buds, stem, and bark, as well as in roots of the following plant families: Verbenaceae (Lantana camara), Boreginaceae (Cordia latifolia), Asteraceae (Reichardia tingitana), Myrtaceae (Syzygium aromaticum), Cucurbitaceae (Microsechium helleri and Sicyos bulbosus), and Ranunculaceae (Pulsatilla koreana). Out of 18 terpenoids isolated and characterized from the aerial parts of L. camara, pomolic acid (48), lantanolic acid (49), and lantoic acid (50) showed 100% mortality against M. incognita from 24 and 72 h at 1 mg/mL concentration. In contrast, camarin (51), lantacin (52), camarinin (53), and ursolic acid (54) caused 100% mortality to M. incognita at the same concentration (1 mg/mL) after 48 h. 68 Irrespective of the tested compounds, there was a considerable increase in the activity when the dose was increased from 1 to 2 mg/mL. The nematicidal potency of some saponins from Medicago sativa has been reported previously. 143 , 144 The roots of P. koreana, a species endemic to Korea, also contain mono‐ and bisdesmoside oleanane‐type triterpenoid saponins (79–87), which revealed nematicidal activity against M. incognita after 24 and 72 h of exposure at 70.1–184.3 μg/mL. 74 Hederacholchiside E (79), hederacoside B (80), raddeanoside R13 (82), hederoside C (85), and pulsatilla saponin D (86) showed significant effects, with LC50 values ranging from 70.1 to 94.7 μg/mL after 48 h. After 72 h treatment, Li et al. 74 noticed no significant variations, suggesting that all the isolates displayed activity within 48 h.
3.5. Flavonoids
Flavonoids are a diverse group of naturally occurring polyphenolic compounds found in plants. They are widely distributed throughout the plant kingdom and are responsible for the colors of many fruits, flowers, and vegetables. 145 Flavonoids play essential roles in plant physiology, including pigmentation, UV protection, and defense against pathogens and herbivores. Myriad studies have demonstrated that certain flavonoids exhibit nematicidal activity against plant‐parasitic nematodes. 146 , 147 These flavonoids can interfere with the nematodes' physiology, leading to paralysis, inhibition of egg hatching, or disruption of their reproductive cycle.
Flavonoids (88–107) were found in various parts (whole plants, leaves, tubers, stem bark, and roots) of the families Phyllanthaceae (Phyllanthus niruri), Fabaceae (Leucaena leucocephala), Araceae (Arisaema erubescens), Myrtaceae (Eucalyptus exserta), and Thymelaeaceae (Stellera chamaejasme). These include simple and prenylated flavonoids (88–94), glycosylated flavonoids (95–99), and biflavonoids (100–107). From the ethanol extract, two nematicidal flavone‐C‐glycosides, schaftoside (98) and isoschaftoside (99), were obtained through activity‐guided fractionation. The former possessed nematicidal activity against the root‐knot nematode M. incognita, with LC50/72h values of 114.7 μg/mL ~2‐fold more potent than the latter (LC50/72h = 323.1 μg/mL). 80
Chamaechromone (93) is a major component in the dried roots of S. chamaejasme. It possessed a strong nematicidal effect (LC50/72h = 3.0 nM) against Bursaphelenchus mucronatus, performing better than synthetic nematicide lambda‐cyhalothrin (LC50/72h = 1.1 μM). 78 In addition, the roots of S. chamaejasme also produced biflavonoids. Interestingly, these polyphenolic compounds have some important bioactivities and have been shown to be key players in the resistance of some nematodes such as B. mucronatus, B. xylophilus, A. besseyi, and Ditylenchus destructor. 78 , 81 The nematicidal activity of (+)‐chamaejasmine (101) was strongest against B. mucronatus at the lowest test concentration after 72 h of treatment (LC50/72h = 5100 μM). 78 It was also found that the relative configuration in the C ring of tested compounds could drastically affect the nematicidal activity. For instance, ruixianglangdusu B (100) and chamaejasmenin C (102) are both constitutional isomers. The latter was more active against B. xylophilus, LC50/72h = 2.7 μM, while the former was 5‐fold less potent (LC50/72h = 15.7 μM). 78 Jin and collaborators also observed similar results. As part of their investigation campaign, biflavoinoids (105–107) isolated from the roots of S. chamaejasme exhibited an inhibitory effect against two phytoparasitic nematodes, A. besseyi and D. destructor, whereby isoneochamaejasmin A (106) had the strongest nematicidal activity against A. besseyi and D. destructor, with LC50/72h values of 2.32 and 0.18 mM, respectively. 81
3.6. Coumarins
Coumarins are organic compounds found in various plants and microbes (fungi and bacteria) and characterized by their benzene ring fused to an α‐pyrone ring, and are widely distributed throughout the plant kingdom. 136 , 137 , 148 Coumarins and their analogs (108–121) have gained attention in the field of nematode control due to their potential efficacy against a range of free‐living (P. redivivus and C. elegans) and plant‐parasitic (B. xylophilus and Meloidogyne spp.) nematodes. 78 , 82 , 84 , 85 , 149 The potent nematicidal properties of coumarins have spurred extensive research, leading to various synthetic modifications to enhance their efficacy and specificity. Scientists have therefore explored structural alterations in coumarin derivatives to optimize their bioactivity against nematodes (M. incognita, D. destructor, B. xylophilus, B. mucronatus, and A. besseyi). 149 These modifications aim to improve factors such as solubility, stability, and target specificity.
Simple coumarins, furocoumarins, and bicoumarins were mainly found in various tissues (fruits, roots, and leaves rhizome) of the families Apiaceae (Angelica dahurica, Cnidium monnieri, Notopterygium incisum, and Heracleum candicans), Moraceae (Ficus carica), and Thymelaeaceae (S. chamaejasme). Their mode of action in nematode control is related to the inhibition of the enzymes acetylcholinesterase (which catalyzes acetylcholine hydrolysis, a key neurotransmitter in nematodes' cholinergic nervous system) and calcium adenosine triphosphatase (Ca2+ ATPase), as well as other metabolic pathways. 82 , 150 Umbelliferone (108), also known as 7‐hydroxycoumarin, which is considered a precursor in the biogenetic of various coumarins, is the simplest coumarin isolated from the roots of S. chamaejasme displaying nematicidal activity against B. xylophilus (LC50/72h = 3.3 μM) and B. mucronatus (LC50/72h = 33.4 μM). 78 Under the same experimental conditions, the nematicidal activity of daphnoretin (109), a bicoumarin, was significantly stronger than umbelliferone (108) against B. mucronatus (LC50/72h = 0.05 μM), but less effective toward B. xylophilus (LC50/72h = 65.30 μM).
In addition to the benzene and α‐pyrone rings, furocoumarins have an additional ring, so‐called furan. Just like simple coumarins, furocoumarins produced by plants may also contribute as a defense mechanism against nematodes. However, the presence of the furan ring was found to alter the physicochemical properties of the tested compounds, affecting their bioavailability and interaction with nematodes, thus limiting their nematicidal activity. Psoralen (111), a derivative of umbelliferone (108), is the chemical building block of various linear and angular furanocoumarins. Psoralen (111) displayed weak nematicidal activity against B. xylophilus (LC50/72h = 258.80 mg/L) 84 as compared to umbelliferone (108). While prenylation is a common modification that can enhance the biological activities of certain natural compounds, including furanocoumarins, its impact on nematoxicity can vary. Different prenylation C‐ versus O‐prenylation (3‐methylbut‐2‐en‐1‐yl, geranyl, 3‐ethyl‐2,2‐dimethyloxirane) groups, and cyclization could lead to variations in physicochemical properties and interactions with microorganisms. Under the same conditions, 8‐geranyloxypsoralen (119), imperatorin (120), and heraclenin (121) displayed various degrees of nematicidal activities against B. xylophilus, and P. redivivus. 85 Surprisingly, in a recent study, imperatorin (120) was more sensitive against B. xylophilus (LC50/72h = 132.00 μM). 82
3.7. Thiophenes
Thiophenes in plants are represented by a range of heterocyclic compounds with one to five thiophene rings. 28 Many Asteraceae species (Tagetes patula, Coreopsis lanceolata, Artemisia absinthium, Echinops grijsii, Echinops latifolius, and Adenophyllum aurantium) have been investigated, resulting in the isolation of many bioactive thiophenes with nematicidal activity. Like many other secondary metabolites, thiophenes possess remarkable nematicidal and antifungal properties. 88 , 89 α‐Terthienyl (122), which is an allelochemical derived from the roots of marigold (Tagetes spp.), is well known to suppress plant parasitic and pathogenic nematodes, including M. incognita, Heterodera zeae, and N. aberrans. 86 , 151 , 152 Even though α‐terthienyl (122) or related analogs are seemingly a photoactivated chemical, nematicidal activity occurs even without photoactivation. It was found that α‐terthienyl (122) caused 100% mortality against cyst nematode H. zeae infective stage larvae after 24 h, even at the concentration of 0.125% 151 and 99.4% mortality against N. aberrans at 100 μg/mL over 36 h were also observed. 86
Many monothiophenes and bithiophenes' derivatives are known to be nematoxic. Echinops grijsii, another plant with nematode‐suppressive properties, was shown to produce thiophene derivatives (133–147) with similar magnitude under light and dark conditions against M. incognita. 89 Among these, echinothiophene D (136) and 2‐prop‐1‐inyl‐5′‐(2‐hydroxy‐3‐chloropropyl) dithiophene (140) displayed strong activities against M. incognita. A preliminary structure–activity relationship unveiled that the thiophene skeleton was essential for nematicidal activity, while disubstituted groups were helpful for non‐phototoxicity. In addition, an increased number of acetylenes substantially improved the overall neaticidal activity. Compared to their monomer analogs, naturally occurring bithiophene dimers, echinbithiophenedimers A−C (145–147) from related species E. latifolius are also home to nematicidal agents. 90 All the isolates (145–147) were non‐phototoxic and exhibited better nematicidal activity than the synthetic nematicide ethoprophos against M. incognita.
3.8. Annonaceous acetogenins
The annonaceous acetogenins (148–158) is another important class of lipophilic polyketide plant‐based compounds found with nematicidal activity against such nematodes as B. xylophilus, M. incognita, and C. elegans, 91 , 92 and are commonly found in the family Annonaceae. The characteristic features of these compounds include linear 35‐ or 37‐carbon chains containing oxygenated functional groups inter alia hydroxyl, α,β‐unsaturated γ‐lactone, epoxide, bis‐tetrahydrofuran, and tetrahydrofuran motifs. The exact mechanisms underlying the bioactivity of annonaceous acetogenins against nematodes are not fully understood yet. However, studies have shown that acetogenins can disrupt various physiological processes in nematodes, leading to paralysis, inhibition of egg hatching, and interference with larval development and reproduction. 91 , 92 For example, in a concentration‐dependent manner (0.004–1 μg/mL), acetogenins (148–155) caused 100% mortality of the pine wood nematode B. xylophilus 2 days after treatment at 0.33 μg/mL. More specifically, these compounds showed medium lethal concentration (LC50) values ranging from 6 to 48 ng/mL, compared to abamectin (LC50/48h = 43 ng/mL). Moreover, squamocin‐G (150), squamocin‐H (151), and squamocin (152) also displayed various nematicidal activity against M. incognita, with squamocin‐G (150) being the most active (LC50/48h = 1 μg/mL). 91 Additionally, in previous studies, asimicin (an acetogenin) was remarkably active with 100% lethal dose (LD100) (LD100/48 = 0.1 ppm) towards C. elegans. 153 Acetogenin (158) inhibited (>90% inhibition) the egg hatching of Haemonchus contortus at concentrations of 5 and 25 mg/mL. 92
3.9. Simple phenols, phenolic acids, and related esters
Simple phenol, phenolic acids, and their related esters derivatives (169–199) are aromatic secondary plant metabolites biosynthesized through the shikimate pathway from L‐phenylalanine, widely spread throughout the plant kingdom. 154 Simple phenol consists of a benzene ring with a hydroxyl group (—OH) attached directly to it, while phenolic acids are a class of compounds derived from phenol through the addition of one or more carboxylic acid groups (—COOH) to the benzene ring. They can be found naturally in various plant tissues possessing a benzoic or cinnamic acid framework. These compounds play a crucial role in agriculture, particularly in managing nematode populations such as M. incognita and B. xylophilusi, and in nematoxicity studies towards free‐ling nematodes (C. elegans, P. redivivus, Cephalobus litoralis) 9 , 10 , 69 , 72 , 94 , 95 , 96 , 97 , 98 , 99 , 100 , 101 , 102 , 104 , 106 (Table 1). For instance, a phenylpropanoid (eugenol) found in various concentrations in essential oils exhibited nematicidal activity against various nematode species including D. dipsaci and Meloidogyne spp. 38 , 155 The phenylpropanoid ester derivatives (alkyl cinnamates) ethyl trans‐cinnamate (173) and ethyl p‐methoxycinnamate (174) extracted from the roots and rhizome of Kaempferia galanga have demonstrated efficacy against M. incognita (LC50/48h ≤ 41.0 μg/mL). 95 , 96 Latifolicinins A–C (177–179) are n‐alkyl ester derivatives of latifolicinin D (180), another series of nematotoxic agents extracted from the fruits of C. latifolia. All the compounds showed 100% mortality against M. incognita at 0.125% concentration after 72 h. 69 Chemical investigation of S. parviflora roots (Stemonaceae) led to the isolation and characterization of several compounds with nematicidal activity. For example, (E)‐4‐hydroxycinnamic acid methyl ester (181) and 4‐hydroxy‐benzenepropanol‐α‐benzoate (196) showed nematicidal activity against M. incognita with IC50/24h values of 1.07 and 4.2 μM, respectively. 9 , 10 Protocatechuic acid (190), a hydroxybenzoic acid commonly found in plants such as Camellia sinensis, 156 Hibiscus sabdariffa, 157 Eucommia ulmoides, 158 Smilacis chinae, 159 Galinsoga parviflora, 101 , 102 , 103 Schinus terebinthifolius, 105 and Terminalia nigrovenulosa, showed nematicidal activity against root‐knot nematode M. incognita. 103
3.10. Miscellaneous plant secondary metabolites
Several other classes of plant secondary metabolites (200–262) were also shown to exhibit nematicidal activity. For example, evodol (207) and limonin (208) isolated from the fruits of E. rutaecarpa are both natural tetracyclic triterpenoid compounds. 51 These compounds demonstrated nematicidal activity against M. incognita with LC50/72h values of 155.0 and 197.4 μg/mL, respectively. 51 A phytochemical investigation of S. parviflora roots revealed several phenanthrene derivatives (parviphenanthrines A [227], E [228] and stemanthrene A [229]) showed nematicidal activity against M. incognita with LC50/24h values of 14.0, 2.5 and 17.1 μM, respectively. 9 , 10 Activity‐guided isolation of the methanolic extract of the whole plants of Peperomia japonica resulted in the isolation of two polyketides (239 and 240) with strong lethal activity toward C. elegans. 119 Further nematicidal activity of Punicalagin (239) and Peperomianone (240) was also recorded towards Heligmosomoides polygyrus, with LC50/72 values of 26.5 and 13.9 μM, respectively for larval stage 1. 119 Polyacetylenes are a kind of small active metabolites with carbon–carbon triple bond widely distributed in nature, including plants N. incisum (Apiaceae) 59 , 60 and Artemisia halodendron (Asteraceae). 122 They have been found to display nematicidal activity against several nematodes. Falcarindiol (250) and falcarinol (251) are mixture of polyyne and fatty alcohol found in carrot roots as well as plants belonging to the family Apiaceae (N. incisum) with nematicidal activity. Both compounds showed growth inhibitory activity against B. xylophilus (LC50/72h values of 2.20 and 12.61 μg/mL, respectively) and M. incognita (LC50/72h values of 1.08 and 4.96 μg/mL, respectively). 56 , 57 , 59 , 60 Microwave‐assisted extraction from the roots of A. halodendron yielded polyacetylenes (255–258), which showed remarkable nematicidal effect against M. incognita Chitwood (LC50/48h = 0.21–3.32 mg/L) compared with abamectin (LC50/48h = 9.98 mg/L). 122
4. CONCLUSIONS AND PERSPECTIVES
Plant‐based natural compounds offer a promising avenue for sustainable and eco‐friendly pest control strategies. The wealth of bioactive compounds found in plants, combined with advancements in extraction, purification, and identification techniques, provides diverse options for combating nematode infestations. This review demonstrates the potential of plants as a feedstock for sourcing nematicidal compounds and discovering new chemistries that could potentially be used for developing the next generation of nematicides. Over the last two decades of scientific investigation, ca. 262 terrestrial compounds as alternative pest management strategies have been reported from 35 families and 65 plant species. This diversity provides a wide array of potential compounds to explore for their efficacy against nematodes. The effectiveness of activity‐driven purification methods underscores the importance of targeted approaches in isolating bioactive compounds. By focusing on fractions with proven activity against nematodes, researchers can monitor the isolation process and identify lead compounds more efficiently. The nanogram‐range activity demonstrated by annonaceous acetogenins suggests their potential as lead compounds for further exploration in nematode management. Specifically, their effectiveness against nematode species, such as B. xylophilus, M. incognita, and C. elegans, highlights their broad‐spectrum activity and potential applicability in pest control strategies.
Although significant work has been conducted in the field, understanding the extrinsic and intrinsic modes of action of various classes of secondary metabolites is necessary for developing effective nematicidal compounds. Furthermore, this knowledge serves as a blueprint for designing synthetic analogues with similar or improved efficacy. Rigorous bioassays and field trials are also necessary to evaluate the efficacy and safety of natural nematicidal compounds under real‐world conditions. Furthermore, understanding the impacts of natural products on non‐target organisms is an important consideration since these beneficial organisms help maintain soil fertility and overall ecosystem balance. In addition, developing sustainable production methods for natural nematicidal compounds is also vital to ensure their viability as commercial alternatives. This includes exploring efficient extraction techniques, optimizing cultivation practices for natural sources, and investigating biosynthetic pathways for production.
Supporting information
Data S1. Supporting Information.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This work was supported by the PAPAS‐Potato and Pests Actionable Science Against Nematodes: A systems approach to controlling nematodes in US potato production. Project award no. 2022‐51181‐38450, from the US Department of Agriculture's National Institute of Food and Agriculture.
DATA AVAILABILITY STATEMENT
The data that support the findings of this study are available from the corresponding author upon reasonable request.
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Associated Data
This section collects any data citations, data availability statements, or supplementary materials included in this article.
Supplementary Materials
Data S1. Supporting Information.
Data Availability Statement
The data that support the findings of this study are available from the corresponding author upon reasonable request.