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. 2025 Jan 10;15:1582. doi: 10.1038/s41598-024-84708-2

Dust deposition characteristics on photovoltaic arrays investigated through wind tunnel experiments

Juan Wang 1,2, Weiwei Hu 1, Yunyun Wen 1, Fei Zhang 1, Xingcai Li 1,✉
PMCID: PMC11723948  PMID: 39794408

Abstract

Optimizing the installation parameters of photovoltaic panels in a photovoltaic array to reduce dust accumulation, thereby enhancing their power generation, is a crucial research topic in the construction of solar power stations in desert regions. Utilizing a series of wind tunnel experiments on a photovoltaic array comprising four equally sized panels, this study assessed how variations in tilt angle, mounting height, spacing, and incoming flow direction influence both the accumulation mass of dust and the particle size distribution in a photovoltaic array. The results indicate that the dust accumulation on the first panel exponential growth with increasing tilt angle, incoming flow angles, and height, while subsequent panels displayed a trend of initial increase followed by a decrease, with a maximum increasing ratio achieved at specific installation configurations, the difference of dust mass on each panel can even be several times. Notably, when the spacing between panels exceeds twice the panel height, the mutual influence on dust deposition becomes negligible, providing a quantifiable threshold for optimal panel spacing. Additionally, significant differences exist in the particle size characteristics of dust in the panel of the array, influenced by the installation parameters of panels and the direction of the incoming flow. This research not only enhances the understanding of dust accumulation in solar energy systems but also offers practical recommendations for optimizing installation strategies, thereby improving the economic viability of solar power stations, particularly in desert regions.

Keywords: Photovoltaic power, Dust deposition, Wind tunnel experiment, Wind direction, Installation parameters

Subject terms: Environmental impact, Energy science and technology

Introduction

With the rapid development of the global economy, there is an increasing demand for energy in human society. However, traditional fossil fuels are facing a potential shortage and their significant negative impact on the atmospheric environment has gained more attention. The development of green renewable energy has become a crucial component of the world’s energy strategy. Photovoltaic power generation has experienced remarkable growth due to its unique advantages1–5. According to predictions by the International Energy Agency, global installed photovoltaic capacity will reach 1627GW by 2025, accounting for 0.35% of social energy share and exhibiting clear exponential growth (as depicted in Fig. 1). As a major player in the photovoltaic industry, China currently holds the top position in terms of installed capacity worldwide. According to reports from the National Energy Administration, as of March 2023, cumulative grid-connected photovoltaic capacity reached 425,222 MW with centralized photovoltaic power stations contributing around 248,898 MW, over half of them installed suffering from severe desertification such as western and northern areas (refer to Fig. 2).

Fig. 1.

Fig. 1

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Bubble chart of PV installed capacity changes trend and energy proportion.

Fig. 2.

Fig. 2

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Statistics of installed PV capacity in China (before March 2023). (a) total installed capacity. (b) centralized installed capacity.

To optimize the performance of photovoltaic (PV) systems in complex environments, the industry has introduced the concept of smart PV systems6. These systems integrate advanced technologies, including big data, cloud computing, and the Internet of Things (IoT), enabling real-time monitoring of key parameters such as temperature, humidity, voltage, and equipment status, along with fault detection information. By leveraging big data analytics, smart PV systems can accurately analyze and predict the operational status of power stations, proactively identifying and addressing potential issues7–9. Moreover, historical environmental data and actual power generation information can be used to enhance the accuracy of power generation models10. Currently, smart PV systems are regarded as a critical approach to improving the efficiency of photovoltaic power stations and reducing operational and maintenance costs. The goal is to quantitatively assess the environmental factors affecting PV generation and incorporate these findings into the smart PV control system, thus enhancing its functionality and enabling intelligent operational predictions.

The desertification land offers abundant solar energy resources, which have significant implications for the efficient power generation of PV cells. However, the severe and frequent wind-driven sand movement leads to substantial dust deposition on the surface of PV panels, negatively impacting their electrical, optical, and thermal performance11–14. In recent years, the impact of dust deposition on PV power generation systems has received increased attention1–5, and even on the influence of the power generation prediction accuracy15,16. Scholars have also examined the effects of dust on the power generation efficiency of monocrystalline silicon, polysilicon, and thin-film PV cells under soiling conditions17,18. Studies indicate that a 1-micron layer of dust can cause a 25.5% reduction in the power generation efficiency of PV modules19. Through outdoor experiments, Gholami et al. found that after 70 days of exposure, the dust accumulation on the surface of the PV panels reached 6.0986 g/m2, resulting in a 21.47% reduction in the power output20. Similarly, experimental results by Kazem et al. showed a 9% and 20% decrease in PV power generation after 4 and 8 weeks of exposure, respectively21. Abdullah et al. estimated that dust accumulation could cause up to a 35% revenue loss due to a 20% reduction in solar radiation22. To accurately predict the impact of dust on PV systems, it is crucial to understand the dust deposition mechanisms and the amount of dust accumulation on the panels23–25, particularly through controlled indoor simulation experiments26. Lu et al. conducted a laboratory simulation experiment to examine the influence of self-cleaning coatings on the dust deposition density of solar PV cells27. Yang et al. studied the effect of particle size, wind speed, panel inclination, and wind direction on dust deposition, finding that the panel inclination had the least impact28. Abdolzadeh et al. investigated dust deposition in southeast Iran, using various glass panels with different tilt angles and orientations29. Amin et al. examined the impact of dust accumulation on the performance of PV panels installed on building rooftops30. Shi et al. built a test apparatus to evaluate the effect of high-velocity sand and dust on the power loss of 330 PV modules from 53 global manufacturers31. Jaszczur et al. performed a field experiment on a building rooftop to analyze how dust and soiling affected PV cell performance. The test site was characterized by high air pollution, heavy traffic, and relatively low wind speeds32. Tanesab et al. studied the effect of dust on the performance degradation of various PV panel types using artificial coating in a laboratory33. Alkharusi et al. investigated the non-uniform distribution of dust deposition through experiments34. Lenka et al. analyzed the effect of dust types on the reduction of PV performance by field experiment35. However, the study of dust deposition in PV arrays is very rare.

In recent years, Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) has gained widespread adoption among researchers to investigate phenomena such as dust deposition and wind-induced cooling on PV panels36. Lu et al. employed the shear stress transport k-ω turbulence model and the discrete particle model to investigate dust deposition processes and behaviors on isolated PV panels and solar photovoltaic arrays37,38. Hu et al. studied the mechanism of dust deposition on photovoltaic modules with a three-dimensional (3D) simulation model and applied these simulation results to optimize the installation parameters of PV modules39. Li et al. utilized CFD simulations to explore dust deposition on PV panel arrays with varying ratios of plate height to distance between panels40. Li et al. studied the dust deposition on the photovoltaic panel with different inclinations using the CFD simulation41. Zheng et al. simulated the dust deposition characteristics of PV arrays and analyzed the effect of the row spacing between PV modules42. Additionally, some researchers have developed deep learning-based predictive models for forecasting daily dust accumulation on PV panels43. As is well known, dust deposition is influenced by both atmospheric environmental factors and the installation parameters of PV panels44–46. When employing numerical simulation methods to study dust deposition on PV panels, the primary challenge lies in validating the flow field structure. However, current studies typically validate their numerical models solely by comparing wind speed, neglecting the effects of deposition mass and particle size on the panels. From a physical standpoint, this form of validation is insufficient. The presence of particles induces specific alterations in the flow field47, and any inaccuracies in the flow field simulation directly impact the forces acting on the particles, thereby affecting their deposition characteristics. Furthermore, the simpler small wind tunnel with too small size can influence the flow field distribution around the PV panel due to wall effect, which undermines the credibility of simulation results. Therefore, conducting simulations in larger wind tunnels is considered optimal for studying dust deposition48. However, experimental research involving larger wind tunnels is costly, which limits the frequency of such studies. Additionally, experimental data on the distribution characteristics of dust on PV panel surfaces remain relatively scarce, with a lack of original data on particle size distribution in the incoming flow and on each PV panel within the array. To address these gaps, we have designed a series of wind tunnel experiments to conduct a detailed investigation. This research focuses on the impact of panel tilt angles, installation heights, spacings, and wind direction angles on dust distribution characteristics within a PV array, aiming to provide comprehensive experimental data to support further studies in this field.

Wind-tunnel experiment process

The wind tunnel experiments were conducted at the Laboratory for Experimental Geomorphology, Northwest Institute of Eco-Environment and Resources, Chinese Academy of Sciences, located in the Shapotou Zone of Zhongwei City, in China. The wind tunnel features a test section measuring 21 m in length with a cross-sectional area of 1.2 × 1.2 m, making it the pioneering experimental facility in China for studying wind-blown sand physics. Figure 3 illustrates the setup of the experimental apparatus. The wind speed can be adjusted between 0 and 40 m/s. To simulate a dusty environment, fine dust particles were introduced from the upper section of the wind tunnel, the wind speed was set at 5 m/s. The experiment was conducted over a duration of approximately 14 days, during which the average air temperature was 12 °C, and air humidity was 25%, with no recorded precipitation in the period of our experiment. The mass of dust accumulated on each PV panel was accurately measured using a balance with a precision of 0.0001 g. The particle size distribution was measured by Mastersizer 2000 laser particle size analyzer, and the data was analyzed using Matlab software, yielding a distribution that approximately follows a gamma function, with an average particle size of about 8 µm (as shown in Fig. 4). Additionally, we present the particle size distribution of the dust deposited on each panel, along with the changes observed in their average particle size. The experimental focus was on an array of four identical PV panels, designated as PV_1, PV_2, PV_3, and PV_4, each measuring 670 mm in length and 350 mm in width. To ensure the reliability of the results, all tests were conducted in triplicate, and the average value was recorded for analysis.

Fig. 3.

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General sketch of the wind-tunnel experiment.

Fig. 4.

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Size distribution function of the dust used in the experiment.

Figure 5 illustrates the mass distribution characteristics of dust accumulation on a PV panel tilted at a 45° angle, with the distance from the lower edge of the panel to the ground set at 30 cm. This parameter was kept constant throughout the study unless otherwise specified. The figure reveals a varying degree of non-uniform dust accumulation. This non-uniform distribution has been observed in both field experiments and numerical simulations40. Such discrepancies in dust distribution can significantly affect the performance of PV panels, leading to unreliable predictions of their overall efficiency34. However, there is currently a notable lack of comparative studies investigating the dust distribution patterns on the surface areas of individual components within photovoltaic arrays. Furthermore, the issue of particle size variation has not been adequately addressed by researchers in related fields.

Fig. 5.

Fig. 5

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Dust accumulation experiment of PV panel under wind from different directions. (a) Wind from the side of PV panels (0°). (b) Wind from the front of PV panels(90°).

Results analysis and discussion

Deposited dust mass

This study first investigates the effect of the inclination angle of the PV panel on dust accumulation. The dust accumulation on the panel was measured at panel inclinations of 0°, 15°, 30°, 35°, 45° and 60°. The dust accumulation results for the four PV panels across three experimental repetitions are presented in Fig. 6, with each set of results labeled as T1, T2, and T3 in the corresponding histogram. The consistency among these results indicates that the experimental patterns exhibit a high level of reproducibility. It is evident that significant differences in dust accumulation were observed across the four PV panels at varying tilt angles. At an inclination of 0°, the accumulated dust mass increases progressively along the direction of the incoming flow. However, as the tilt angle increases from 15° to 60°, dust accumulation gradually decreases. These findings suggest that the inclination angle of the PV panel directly influences dust deposition. Specifically, as the tilt angle increases, the interception area for dust on the panel also increases, leading to higher dust deposition. Notably, the first panel showed a significant increase in dust accumulation with increasing tilt, while the remaining three panels exhibited increases in dust deposition, though the differences in accumulated dust mass diminished among them. This trend suggests that incorporating windbreak walls in front of the PV array may help reduce dust accumulation within the array.

Fig. 6.

Fig. 6

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Changes of dust amount on each PV panel with various inclination angles.

To more intuitively reveal the impact of the tilted angle of the PV panel on the dust accumulation, we averaged the results of the three experiments and presented them in Fig. 7. The results indicate that as the tilt angle increases, dust accumulation on the first PV panel exhibits a nearly exponential growth pattern, while the other three panels display a trend of initial increase followed by a decrease. The maximum dust accumulation occurs at tilt angles between 30° and 35°. Compared to the dust accumulation at zero tilt angle, the dust accumulation on PV2, PV3, and PV4 can increase by up to 50%, 200%, and 275%, respectively. These findings suggest that optimizing the inclination angle of PV panels can effectively reduce the impact of dust accumulation. Furthermore, this result is not consistent with the experimental result of Gholami et al.49 who found that the most accumulation at an inclination of 15°. This discrepancy may be attributed to variations in airflow direction and the orientation of the panels.

Fig. 7.

Fig. 7

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Changes of average dust amount on the PV panel with various inclination angles.

Numerous studies have examined the influence of wind speed on dust accumulation on PV panels, and the results are generally consistent with each other50. However, research on the impact of wind direction on dust accumulation on PV panels remains relatively scarce. To address this gap, this study employs wind tunnel experiments to investigate the effects of wind direction on dust deposition. The angle between the wind direction and the normal line of the PV panel is defined as the direction of the incoming flow. In the experiments, the panels were tilted at an angle of 35°. Since the wind tunnel cannot alter the direction of the incoming flow, this study simulates different wind directions by adjusting the orientation angle of the PV panels, which is physically equivalent to adjusting the direction of the incoming flow. In this study, the angle between the incoming flow and the normal to the PV panels was varied in equal intervals from 0 to 90°, with increments of 15° for each experimental set. The results are presented in Fig. 8. As shown in the figure, the dust deposition mass on PV_1 initially increases before subsequently decreasing with changes in wind direction. In contrast, the dust mass on PV_2, PV_3, and PV_4 exhibits an initial increase followed by an exponential decrease as the wind direction angle increases. These findings highlight the significant influence of wind direction on dust accumulation on PV panels. Furthermore, the results also demonstrate that when the angle between the incoming flow and the PV panel is extremely small (approximately 0° to 15°, as depicted in our experiment), there is a continuous increase in dust accumulation across all four panels. Conversely, an exponential decrease in dust accumulation is observed for each panel at larger angles. Given that wind direction in desertification areas frequently changes51, a comprehensive consideration of both wind speed and direction throughout different seasons is crucial for accurately assessing dust accumulation and the economic benefits of PV panels installed in desert regions.

Fig. 8.

Fig. 8

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Comparison between four PV panels in different wind directions.

For photovoltaic modules installed on desertified land, increasing the installation height is a commonly recommended measure to mitigate the erosion of land, and to protect the modules. However, the potential impact of this adjustment on the accumulation of dust on the surface of individual modules within the array remains insufficiently studied. To address this gap, Fig. 9 examines the relationship between the mounting height of the modules and the volume of dust accumulating on their surface areas. This analysis aims to provide critical insights into the trade-offs associated with mounting height adjustments in desert environments. In the experiment, we compared the dust accumulation of photovoltaic modules installed at the heights of 10 cm, 20 cm, 30 cm, and 40 cm respectively. The figure reveals that dust accumulation on the surface of photovoltaic (PV) panels varies significantly with their position relative to the incoming airflow and their mounting height. Notably, the first panel in the flow direction consistently exhibits much higher dust accumulation than the panels located behind it, regardless of the mounting height. Furthermore, as the mounting height increases, dust accumulation on the first panel initially rises, reaching a peak, before subsequently declining. In contrast, dust accumulation on the other three panels decreases approximately exponentially with increasing mounting height. These findings suggest that raising the installation height of PV panels is an effective strategy to reduce overall dust deposition within the panel array. This reduction can be attributed to the weakening influence of the ground on the airflow dynamics around the panels as the mounting height increases, which diminishes the entrainment and deposition of dust particles on the panel surfaces.

Fig. 9.

Fig. 9

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The influence of the mounting height of PV panel on dust deposition.

By adjusting the array spacing, the mutual occlusion can be effectively avoided and the land utilization rate can be increased. However, the disturbance of the front array to the wind field may also aggravate the settlement of particulate matter in the near-ground atmosphere, thus reducing the overall power generation of the power station. Therefore, it is helpful to optimize the photovoltaic array to study the deposition law of surface particles when the modules are arranged at different spacing. To this end, Fig. 10 illustrates the influence of the spacing between each panel in the array on the dust accumulation on the PV panel. The data presented in the figure indicate that when the spacing between panels is less than 1 m, the dust accumulation on the panel surface initially increases and then decreases with increasing spacing. The increased rate of dust accumulation on a single PV panel is close to 20~60%, and the highest is even 4 times. In addition, the amount of dust accumulated on the four photovoltaic panels in the array can differ by 2.6 times. However, when the spacing exceeds 1 m, there is a significant increase in dust accumulation. This behavior is mainly attributed to the substantial impact of the PV panels on the surrounding flow field. As the distance between the panels increases, the influence of the front panel on the flow field structure around the rear panel diminishes. Considering the dimensions of the panels (width 35 cm) and their tilt angle (35°), we can estimate that the height of the upper edge of the PV panel is approximately 50 cm, which coincidentally is half of the 1-m spacing established in our experiment. Consequently, we propose that when the distance between two PV panels in the array approaches twice the height of the PV panel (i.e., approximately 1 m), the influence of the front panel on the flow field surrounding the rear panel may become negligible. This finding could be valuable for optimizing the spacing between components of photovoltaic arrays deployed in desert regions, potentially enhancing the overall power generation of the plant. Additionally, it is noteworthy that dust accumulation on the surfaces of the four PV panels decreases exponentially as they are installed at greater distances along the direction of the incoming flow.

Fig. 10.

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Influence of the spacing of PV array on the dust accumulation.

Particle size distribution in the PV array

The actual power generation of soiling PV panels is influenced not only by the mass of deposited particles but also by their size52. In our experiment, we also measured the particle size distribution of the dust deposited on the surface of PV panels and observed novel phenomena. Particle deposition is governed by van der Waals force, fluid force, gravity, and electrostatic force23. Among these, the installation parameters of PV panels and variations in the direction of the incoming flow directly affect the magnitude of the fluid force acting on the particles. In this section, our analysis primarily focuses on elucidating potential variations in particle size on the PV panel. This observation may help to explain the spatial differences in dust distribution within the array, and could inform the development of optimized dust removal strategies for PV modules.

Figure 11 illustrates the particle size distribution functions of deposited particles on the four PV panels at different tilt angles. The data indicate that the particle size distribution functions under various conditions exhibit similar patterns. However, the different positions of PV panels within the array result in varying degrees of response in the particle size distributions as the tilt angles change. Notably, when the photovoltaic panels are laid flat, the sizes of the deposited particles are significantly larger than those observed at other tilt angles. For the first panel, the particle size distribution exhibits considerable variation with changes in tilt angle, whereas the distributions on the other three panels remain largely unaffected by such changes. It is particularly noteworthy that for the second panel, when laid flat, the dust particle size is much larger compared to the sizes observed at other tilt angles. In contrast, the fourth panel shows the least variation in particle size across different tilt angles.

Fig. 11.

Fig. 11

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Size distribution of deposited particles on PV panels with different tilt angles.

Figure 12 presents the particle size distribution of surface dust on four photovoltaic panels within the array under different incoming flow directions. The data indicate that the particle size on the surface of the first panel exhibits the most significant changes in response to varying flow directions. Notably, as the flow direction increases, the particle size on both the PV_1 and PV_3 panels demonstrates a similar trend of first increasing and then decreasing, peaking at a tilt angle of 15°. In contrast, the dust size on the PV3 and PV4 panels initially decreases before subsequently increasing, with their maximum values occurring at a tilt angle of 60°.

Fig. 12.

Fig. 12

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Particle size distribution on PV panel at different incoming directions of wind.

Figure 13 illustrates the particle size distribution of dust deposition on PV panels at various installation heights. The data indicate that as installation height increases, the dust size distribution on the PV_4 panel exhibits the most significant variation, while the other three panels display nearly consistent particle sizes. Notably, the particle size distribution of dust accumulation on the first panel is relatively concentrated, followed by PV2 and PV3, whereas PV4 demonstrates a more dispersed distribution. Additionally, at an installation height of 0.3 m, the particle sizes on all four photovoltaic panels are larger compared to those at other heights. This phenomenon may be attributed to the decreasing influence of the ground boundary layer on the flow field around the panels as the installation height increases, resulting in a relative increase in wind speed across each panel.

Fig. 13.

Fig. 13

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Particle size distribution on PV panel at different installation heights.

Figure 14 illustrates the particle size distribution of dust on the surfaces of each panel at different installation spacings between the four PV panels in the array. The figure reveals that, aside from the limited variation in the particle size distribution of dust on the first panel, the dust deposition on the other three panels exhibits significant changes. Specifically, the particle size of dust deposition on PV_2, PV_3, and PV_4 reaches its maximum when the spacing is set to 0.77 m, whereas for PV_1, the maximum value occurs at a spacing of 0.57 m. Moreover, as the installation spacing between the PV panels increases, the particle size on the surface of each panel shows a decreasing trend. This trend may be attributed to the diminishing disturbance of the flow field caused by the front panels on the rear panels as the spacing increases. Consequently, the wind speed across each panel surface increases, making it more challenging for larger particles to deposit. These experimental results clearly demonstrate the spatial differences in dust characteristics across the surface areas of each panel within the PV array from various angles. Relevant research indicates that different particle sizes exert varying forces on the panel surfaces24,40,53, which inevitably impacts dust removal efficiency. Therefore, by analyzing the differences between the component surface area and the dust deposition patterns in relation to the operational conditions of the PV power station, we can develop an optimized dust removal strategy. Such an approach is likely to enhance the economic benefits of the photovoltaic system.

Fig. 14.

Fig. 14

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Particle size distribution on PV panel at different installation spacing.

Conclusions and recommendations

Optimizing the installation parameters of PV panels to mitigate the impact of dust accumulation on power generation performance is a significant focus within the field of solar energy research. This study provides a comprehensive analysis of dust accumulation patterns on PV panels within an array, addressing a critical gap in the current literature regarding the impact of installation parameters on dust deposition. Through a series of wind tunnel experiments, we investigated the influence of tilt angle, mounting height, spacing, and incoming flow direction on both the mass of dust accumulation and the particle size distribution on four equally sized PV panels. The findings revealed distinct patterns of dust deposition driven by variations in the aforementioned parameters. Specifically, the first panel demonstrated exponential growth in dust accumulation with increasing tilt and incoming flow angles, while subsequent panels exhibited a complex trend of increasing and then decreasing dust accumulation in relation to changes in tilt and spacing. Furthermore, a significant discovery of this research is that, when the spacing between panels exceeds twice the panel height, the mutual influence on dust deposition becomes negligible, thus informing best practices for installation spacing. Additionally, this study highlights the substantial effects of both the direction of the incoming flow and the installation parameters on the particle size distribution of accumulated dust, providing new insights into the mechanics of dust deposition within PV arrays. These research results not only enhance the understanding of dust accumulation in solar energy systems but also contribute to the optimization of installation strategies aimed at improving the economic viability of solar power stations in desert regions. The innovative aspect of this study lies in its empirical approach to quantifying the relationships between installation parameters and dust characteristics, thereby offering practical recommendations for enhancing the efficiency and performance of photovoltaic systems in environments prone to dust accumulation. Future research should explore the long-term effects of these installation strategies on power generation efficiency and the economic implications for solar energy production.

Despite these contributions, the experimental research presented here still has several areas for improvement. Future studies could focus on dust deposition experiments conducted under varying weather conditions, investigations on dust deposition with uniform-sized dust, and dust accumulation assessments in arrays installed at different heights. Certainly, conducting real sampling and analysis of dust on the surface of PV panels in various regions and across different types of photovoltaic arrays in real-world environments would provide even greater value. Such studies would yield practical insights into dust accumulation patterns and their effects on the performance of photovoltaic systems, contributing significantly to the optimization of installation strategies in diverse settings. Such research would also enhance our understanding of how installation parameters of photovoltaic panels influence dust deposition characteristics within the array. However, due to the limitations of the research conditions, these topics are left for scholars in related fields to further explore.

Author contributions

J. W. , W. H., F. Z., Y. W. contributed to the design and implementation of the research, J. W. to the analysis of the results and to the writing of the manuscript. X. L. conceived the original and supervised the project. All authors reviewed the manuscript.

Funding

This work was supported by the National Natural Science Foundation of China (12064034), Excellent Youth Project of Ningxia Natural Science Foundation (2024AAC05040), The Higher Education Scientific Research Project in Ningxia(NYG2024212), the Leading Talents Program of Science and Technology Innovation in Ningxia Province (2020GKLRLX08).

Data availability

Data sets generated during the current study are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.

Declarations

Competing interests

The authors declare no competing interests.

Footnotes

Publisher’s note

Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

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Associated Data

This section collects any data citations, data availability statements, or supplementary materials included in this article.

Data Availability Statement

Data sets generated during the current study are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.

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