Figure 5.

A range of alternative therapeutic approaches has been developed to combat the antimicrobial resistance exhibited by H. pylori. Probiotic therapy employs non-immune mechanisms to counteract H. pylori by competing for attachment sites, inhibiting the expression of virulence genes, and inducing cell death. Additionally, it reduces inflammatory mediators and regulates anti-inflammatory cytokines through immune mechanisms. Photodynamic therapy effectively eradicates H. pylori by generating ROS using a light source in conjunction with a photosensitizer. Phage therapy involves the production of progeny particles from bacteriophages that lyse host cells. The development of vaccines utilizing virulence antigens is crucial for reducing colonization and eradicating H. pylori. Phytotherapy can inhibit urease activity, prevent bacterial adhesion, and enhance membrane permeation against H. pylori infection. Lactoferrin therapy sequesters iron, interacts with lipopolysaccharides and lipoteichoic acids, modulates serine protease activity, and engages with peptidoglycan, ultimately leading to the collapse of the cellular wall.