Lapsi (Choerospondias axillaris (Roxb.) B.L.Burtt & A.W.Hill): A review on traditional uses, chemical constituents and biological activities

Abstract

Lapsi (Choerospondias axillaris (Roxb.) B.L.Burtt & A.W.Hill) is an useful medicinal plant known for various bioactive compounds and diverse biological activities. The aim of this article was to comprehensively review the available information about the traditional uses, chemical constituents and biological activities of Lapsi. A comprehensive literature search was conducted using various databases, including PubMed, Scopus, Web of Science, Google Scholar, and ScienceDirect. Fruits, leaves, and bark have been extensively studied for their potential health benefits, owing to the presence of various phytochemicals such as polyphenols including flavonoids and phenolic acids, terpenoids, and essential oils. These compounds exhibited antioxidant, antimicrobial, anti-inflammatory, and anticancer properties. Additionally, the nutritional value of Lapsi fruit contributes to its popularity as a food source in traditional cuisines. In conclusion, this review explores the chemical constituents and pharmacological activities of Lapsi and highlights its importance as a multipurpose plant in various fields.

1. Introduction

Wild fruits that are native to distinct geographical regions are abundant in essential nutrients and bioactive compounds. They are rich in vitamins, minerals, and antioxidants, which are crucial for maintaining good health and preventing chronic diseases. Additionally, these fruits contain bioactive compounds like polyphenols and flavonoids, which have anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial, and anticancer properties. Despite their nutritional and therapeutic potential, the value of wild fruits is often underappreciated, primarily due to a lack of scientific research validating traditional knowledge [1]. By enhancing awareness of the health benefits, food value, and safe consumption practices of these fruits, we can encourage their inclusion in modern diets and healthcare, thereby bridging the gap between traditional ethnobotanical uses and scientific knowledge.

Choerospondias axillaris (Roxb.) B.L.Burtt & A.W.Hill (Fig. 1) is commonly known as "Lapsi" in Nepali language and “Nepali Hog Plum” in English [2]. It is a small and tangy fruit known for distinctive sour taste [3]. This makes it a sought-after ingredient in local traditional Nepalese cuisines like pickles, chutneys, candies, and refreshing beverages [4]. Beyond its culinary uses, Lapsi fruit is an integral part of traditional medicine across various cultures. It is a rich reservoir of bioactive compounds, including polyphenols [5], flavonoids [6], phenolic acids and essential nutrients [7]. These compounds contribute to its distinctive flavor and also exhibit a spectrum of biological activities, ranging from antioxidant [[8], [9], [10]], anti-inflammatory, anticancer and antimicrobial properties [5,11].

Fig. 1.

Photographs of Choerospondias axillaris, (A) habitat, (B) trunk, (C) leaves, (D) fruits and (E) seeds.

The significance of the Lapsi tree extends beyond its fruit. Its leaves, bark, twigs, roots, and trunk have been widely used due to their nutritional, medicinal, and functional properties. Leaves are used as fodder for livestock, wood is used in furniture-making, and its fibrous bark is used to make rope [12,13]. Further, its bark has medicinal potential for treating second-degree burns [14]. Its seed stones are utilized as fuels in brick furnaces [15]. The seed stones and fruit peel which are otherwise considered agricultural waste are also useful. The seed stones are used to make nanoporous activated carbon with outstanding adsorption abilities [[16], [17], [18], [19]]. The proanthocyanins extracted from fruit peels exhibit potential antioxidant and anti-angiogenic properties [20].

Despite the multifaceted nature of Lapsi fruit tree, comprehensive literature discussing the detailed profile of Lapsi, encompassing its phytochemical composition, biological activities, and diverse applications, remains relatively limited. Moreover, there is a need for more extensive ethnobotanical research to validate and expand upon traditional medicinal uses and to understand the full spectrum of the fruit's applications. This review aims to bridge this gap by consolidating the existing knowledge, and providing a comprehensive overview of the bioactive compounds and biological activities associated with different parts of the Lapsi tree. Furthermore, this review will explore Lapsi's therapeutic value and contribute to its broader application in society and industry, promoting sustainable use and conservation of this valuable resource.

2. Methodology

A comprehensive literature search was conducted using various databases, including PubMed, Scopus, Web of Science, Google Scholar, and ScienceDirect. Keywords such as "Choerospondias axillaris," "Lapsi," "bioactive compounds," "pharmacological activities," "antioxidant properties," "antimicrobial activities," "anticancer activities," and "nutritional composition" were used to identify relevant studies. The search included peer-reviewed journal articles, reviews, and theses, published in English up to the date of this review. Relevant data from the selected articles were systematically extracted and organized. Information regarding the chemical composition, bioactive compounds, biological activities, traditional uses, and potential industrial applications of Lapsi was collected. The extraction process involved summarizing the key findings, methodologies, and conclusions of each study. Data on chemical analysis, biological assays, and experimental results were tabulated for easy reference and comparison.

3. Geographical distribution and cultivation in Nepal

Lapsi holds a significant cultural and economic importance in Nepal, with a widespread distribution across various regions due to its adaptability to diverse environmental conditions. It is commonly found in subtropical and temperate climate regions with altitudes ranging from 900 to 2000 m above sea level [21]. It can withstand mild frost and drought conditions [22]. It is notably abundant in the mid-hill and low-hill regions followed by a few districts in the Mountainous region, and only the Chitwan district in the Terai region. Kathmandu, Kavre, Dhading, Lalitpur, Makwanpur and Taplejung are the major production districts in the eastern and central parts of Nepal [3].

Lapsi is often cultivated in agroforestry systems, where it plays a role in traditional farming practices. It is planted alongside other crops or integrated into existing agricultural lands, contributing to soil conservation and enhancing biodiversity [23]. Cultivation of Lapsi trees is deeply ingrained in Nepali culture. The fruits hold cultural value and is often used in religious rituals and traditional cuisines. Lapsi cultivation contributes to the income of local farmers, especially in rural areas, where it serves as a source of livelihood.

4. Nutritional composition

The nutritional composition of Lapsi varies across its different parts, including leaves, fruits, barks, and other components. The comprehensive studies specifically detailing the nutritional content of Lapsi are limited. Some existing research provides insights into its macro- and micronutrient profile of Lapsi fruits, especially the ripe ones, are particularly rich in vitamin C, which contributes to its tangy taste. They are also a good source of carbohydrates [24] and essential amino acids such as arginine, glutamic acid and glutamine. They also contain varying levels of minerals such as calcium, magnesium, and potassium [25]. Lapsi leaves have been reported to contain significant levels of nutrients. Studies have shown them to be rich in nitrogen, potassium, calcium, magnesium, and phosphorus. Additionally, they contain notable amounts of iron and manganese. Comparative analysis across different parts of the Lapsi plant showcases varying nutritional compositions [26]. For instance, while the leaves are rich in minerals, the fruits excel in providing vitamin C. These variations underscore the plant's multifaceted nutritional value, making it a potentially valuable resource in diverse dietary and medicinal applications.

5. Bioactive components and chemical composition

Several bioactive compounds are reported from various plant parts of C. axillaris. Some of the major compounds are represented in Table 1.

Table 1.

List of Chemical compounds identified in different plant parts of Lapsi and their chemical structures.

5.1. Lapsi fruit and peel

Lapsi fruit contains several important bio active phytochemicals, notably polyphenols and flavonoids, recognized as key components for their efficacy [24]. The aqueous extract of whole fruit revealed a substantial soluble phenolic content of 56.8 % (w/w) and a soluble flavonoid content of 0.2 % (w/w) [8]. Different studies offer varying perspectives on flavonoid content, with Yi et al. [6] reporting a total flavonoid content of 3.65 % (w/w) in dried fruit. Li et al. [5] highlighted a significantly higher polyphenolic concentration in the peel compared to the flesh, delineating distinct profiles. The reported total soluble phenolic content (TPC) of Lapsi fruit surpasses that of numerous other fruits, underscoring its richness in these compounds. Extensive analysis using ultra-performance liquid chromatography/electrospray ionization quadrupole time-of-flight-mass spectrometry (UPLC/ESI-QTOF-MS) identified fifteen phenolic compounds in flesh extracts, with 13 metabolites in peel extracts. Notably, both extracts prominently featured (+)-catechin and oligomeric procyanidins. The principal polyphenols identified via this technique encompass gallic acid, protocatechuic acid, catechin, epicatechin, epicatechin gallate, ellagic acid, quercetin-3-O-glucoside, quercetin-3-O-arabinoside, and quercetin-3-O-rhamnoside.

5.2. Lapsi bark

Three flavonoids namely (+)-catechin, (+)-catechin-7-O-β-D-glucopyranoside and (+)-catechin-4′-O-β-D-glucopyranoside were isolated from the stem barks [27]. Seven compounds isolated from the stem barks of C. axillaris were identified as gallic acid, gallic acid ethyl ether,1-O-galloyl-β- D -glucose, 1, 6-di-O-galloyl-β-D-glucose,1, 4-di-O-galloyl-β-D-glucose, 1,4,6-tri-O-galloyl-β- D -glucose, and 1,3,4,6-tetra-O-galloyl-β-D-glucose [28].

Lapsi bark, although less extensively studied than other parts, is rich in various compounds with potential applications in industries like tanning, dyeing, and as natural mordants due to its reported tannin content [29]. Studies analyzing Lapsi bark extracts using GC-MS, FTIR, Py-GC-MS, and TGA-DTG techniques have provided insights into its chemical composition.

TD-GC/MS analysis of Lapsi bark extracts, revealed peaks corresponding to different compounds. Notably, peaks at 12.237, 19.610, and 25.231 min were identified as ethanol, 2-butoxyethoxy; 1,2-Benzenedicarboxylic acid, bis(2-methylpropyl) ester; and 7, 9-di-tert-butyl-1-oxaspiro (4,5) deca-6,9-diene-2,8-dione, respectively. These analyses unveiled 16 organic compounds, with aldehydes and esters being the most volatile. Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) analysis of Lapsi bark showcased 22 absorption peaks, indicating various functional groups and chemical bonds. Peaks at 3438 cm-1 indicated O-H stretching vibrations found in alcohols, possibly 2-ethyl-1-butanol. Additionally, notable peaks at 1741 cm-1, 2913 cm-1, and 1046 cm-1 suggested C-O and C-H stretching vibrations typical of aldehyde-containing compounds. Further analysis using Py-GC–MS revealed additional compounds in Lapsi bark, such as hydroxy-Acetic acid, Carbamic acid-monoammonium salt, 2 (5H)-furanone, 2-methoxy-4-vinylphenol, trans-Isoeugenol, and Propanoic acid, among others. TGA-DTG curves indicated three stages of thermal loss in Lapsi bark, with critical temperatures at 50 and 200 °C. These temperature ranges are crucial as they signify significant changes in the bark's composition, potentially impacting its properties, such as breakdown of large molecules to smaller ones [29].

5.3. Lapsi branches and leaves

Using several chromatographic separation techniques, researchers extracted limonins [30], including the discovery of a novel compound named axillariol A, from the dichloromethane extract of branches and leaves. One-dimensional (1D), two-dimensional (2D), and high-resolution electrospray ionization quadrupole time of flight mass spectra analysis were used to validate their structures. These compounds exhibited selective and substantial cytotoxicity against the human rhabdomyosarcoma cancer cell line, with LC₅₀ value 9.12 and 7.79 μM, respectively. Notably, compounds toona-ciliatins N and O demonstrated significant and specific cyto-toxicity effects on the RD human cancer cell line, warranting further exploration of their molecular mechanisms in anticancer targets due to their potent cytotoxicity. Furthermore, structural analysis of compounds 1–8 revealed the crucial role of developing a γ-lactone ring at C4/C7 in the cytotoxicity of these compounds.

Lapsi leaves also contain specific endopeptidase enzymes that target peptide bonds containing residues like phenylalanine, tyrosine, alanine, threonine, or aspartic acid [31]. Flavones found in Lapsi leaf tissues (TFLCA) play a pivotal role in regulating the immune system in mice. TFLCA has demonstrated the potential to enhance mouse cutaneous delayed hypersensitivity reactions, augment mononuclear macrophage phagocytosis, elevate mouse hemolysin antibody levels, and increase thymus indices. These findings indicate TFLCA's potential in enhancing mice's specific immunity and celiac macrophage activities [30].

6. Biological activities of Lapsi

Lapsi exhibits a range of pharmacological properties attributed to its diverse bioactive compounds present in different parts of the plant. While comprehensive scientific studies on Lapsi's pharmacology are still in progress, here are some of its recognized pharmacological properties.

6.1. Antioxidant activities

There is an increased interest on food based natural antioxidants due to their perceived safety, potency, effectiveness and stability. Fruits, vegetables, and grains, rich in dietary antioxidants with higher polyphenolic content (PC), are known to mitigate degenerative illnesses and aging. The antioxidant capacity of the Lapsi fruit aqueous extract was assessed, which involved evaluation of its ability to scavenge superoxide anions, DPPH, H₂O₂, and OH in vitro and using a D-galactose-induced mice aging model. Additionally, its impact on reducing power, Fe2+-chelating potential, and inhibiting lipid peroxidation were examined. Results indicated that the Lapsi fruit displayed potent antioxidant activities. Its DPPH radical-scavenging and reducing abilities were similar to those of ascorbic acid, a potent natural antioxidant [8].

The investigation into the antioxidant potential of different concentrations of ethanolic and aqueous fruit extracts involved utilizing the DPPH technique in vitro. The ethanolic extract, at 640 μg/ml concentration, scavanged 91 % of DPPH radicals, while the aqueous extract showed 91 % scavenging activity. Ascorbic acid, used as a control, exhibited a higher efficacy (95 %) compared to both extracts. Notably, ethanolic extracts displayed the lowest IC₅₀ value among the tested samples. The radical scavenging activity observed in Lapsi fruit ethanolic extracts suggests its ability to interrupt free radical chain reactions by transferring electrons. Furthermore, the ethanolic extract's radical scavenging activity, akin to vitamin C, indicates its potential attribution to polyphenols and vitamin C content within Lapsi fruits [9].

6.2. Anticancer activities

Polyphenol rich extracts from Lapsi fruit's peel (PP) and flesh (FP) exhibited antiproliferative effects on cancer cells, with PP demonstrating more potency than FP. This enhanced action of PP is attributed to its higher content of phenolic compounds, especially flavan-3-ols and procyanidins [5]. Given the ongoing necessity for novel cancer therapeutics, targeting oxidative stress imbalance that contributes to cancer cell development, proanthocyanidins present in the plant's peel display free radical scavenging activity and hinder various angiogenesis stages [20].

Flavonoids extracted from plants like Lapsi hold promise as therapeutic agents against cancer. Baicalein, a flavonoid from Scutellariae Radix (Scutellaria baicalensis roots) exhibits anti-cancer effects by suppressing gastric cancer cell growth, inducing S phase arrest, initiating cell apoptosis, and reducing mitochondrial membrane potential. Its mechanism involves the regulation of Bcl-2 and Bax expression, where Baicalein regulates pro-apoptotic gene Bax and downregulates anti-apoptotic gene Bcl-2, ultimately inducing cell apoptosis [32].

A group of five new hydroquinone-based metabolites derived from C. axillaris fruit, choerosponols A-E, have demonstrated distinct antiproliferative and cytotoxic activities against pediatric cancer cell lines such as Ewing sarcoma (A-673) and medulloblastoma (D283). Choerosponol A, containing a benzofuran moiety, exhibited over 50-fold selective antiproliferative activity against these cell lines [33].

A methanol extract of C. axillaris fruits exhibited cytotoxic effects on human breast cancer cells (MDA-MB-231) by regulating the expression of SNCAIP and SNCA genes. The extract was found to significantly downregulate synphilin-1 protein, a key player in cancer progression [34]. In vivo studies using Swiss albino mice showed that methanolic extracts of C. axillaris significantly reduced tumor incidence in a DMBA-induced skin tumorigenesis model, with reductions observed at 200 mg/kg and 400 mg/kg doses. Histopathological analysis indicated improvements in tumor tissue, suggesting a protective role against cancer progression [35]. In vitro studies demonstrated that the extract reduced cell viability in human breast cancer cells (MDA-MB-231) and downregulated synphilin-1, a protein linked to cancer progression. This downregulation, confirmed by proteomic analysis, indicates that C. axillaris may interfere with complex protein interactions crucial for cancer cell survival [34].

6.3. Antimicrobial activities

The Lapsi fruit extract showed antimicrobial properties due to its rich polyphenol content, exhibiting antibacterial, antiviral, and antifungal activities. Its antimicrobial effect predominantly targets bacteria, disrupting bacterial cell walls, inhibiting protein biosynthesis, and suppressing ATP and DNA synthesis by diminishing the DNA gyrase enzyme [36]. Assessments of antimicrobial activity revealed that extracts from both peel and flesh targeted various gram-positive and gram-negative bacteria, with the peel extract exhibiting greater potency. Notably, the methanolic extract displayed effectiveness against Shigella lexeneri, Proteus mirabilis, Salmonella enterica, and Bacillus subtilis [11] (Table 2). The polyphenolic rich extracts from both peel and flesh were evaluated for their antibiogram activity against diverse bacteria, demonstrating strong inhibitory effects on Staphylococcus aureus and Bacillus subtilis. However, the extracts exhibited weaker inhibition against Escherichia coli, Salmonella typhimurium, and Listeria monocytogenes [5]. In addition, the minimum inhibitory concentration MIC and minimum bactericidal concentration (MBC) values of the peel extracts were lower than those of the flesh extracts, indicating their higher potency against bacterial growth (Table 2). These findings categorize the antimicrobial activity as ranging from weak to very high, denoted by the size of inhibition zones on agar plates.

Table 2.

Antibacterial activity of extracts of C. axillaris.

Microorganisms	Methanolic extract from C. axillaris			Reference
	ZOI±SD (mm)	MIC (mg/mL)		[11]
Staphylococcus aureus	10.5 ± 0.5	6.25
Bacillus subtilis	13 ± 0.1	3.12
Staphylococcus epidermis	10.3 ± 0.5	6.25
Bacillus cereus	11.5 ± 0.5	5
Shigella flexeneri	15.6 ± 0.1	1.25
Escherichia coli	13.6 ± 0.1	6.25
Salmonella enteric	14 ± 0.0	3.12
Proteus mirabilis	15 ± 0.5	3.125
	Polyphenolic rich extract from peel of C. axillaris			[5]
	ZOI±SD (mm)	MIC (mg/mL)	MBC (mg/mL)
Staphylococcus aureus ATCC 6538	21.75 ± 1.26	0.16	1.25
Bacillus subtilis ATCC 6633	17.00 ± 1.41	1.25	5.00
Escherichia coli ATCC 8739	15.00 ± 0.82	5.00	10.00
Salmonella typhimurium ATCC 14028	–	–	–
Listeria monocytogenes CMCC 54001	–	–	–
	Polyphenolic rich extract from flesh of C. axillaris			[5]
	ZOI±SD (mm)	MIC (mg/mL)	MBC (mg/mL)
Staphylococcus aureus ATCC 6538	17.00 ± 1.41	0.31	2.50
Bacillus subtilis ATCC 6633	13.75 ± 0.96	2.50	5.00
Escherichia coli ATCC 8739	10.75 ± 0.96	5.00	>10.00
Salmonella typhimurium ATCC 14028	–	–	–
Listeria monocytogenes CMCC 54001	–	–	–

Moreover, the antimicrobial methanolic extract of C. axillaris fruit, when combined with natural gums, proves effective as an edible coating film for preserving orange fruits, reducing post-harvesting losses, and extending shelf life by up to a month at temperatures between 4 and 25 °C [11]. This environment friendly approach substitutes synthetic packaging, minimizing food component loss, and promoting sustainable preservation methods.

6.4. Proteolytic activities

Protease isolated from different parts of the Lapsi exhibit proteolytic activity. Despite partial inhibition by sodium iodoacetic acid (20–30 %) and no inhibition by phenyl methane sulfonyl fluoride (PMSF), it was established that this protease is not a serine protease. Additionally, SDS-PAGE analysis revealed no minor proteolytic by-products of bovine serum albumin (BSA), indicating it's not an exopeptidase. The protease maintained its activity despite multiple trichloroacetic acid (TCA) precipitations [37]. Karki et al. suggested that the leaf protease is an endopeptidase specifically targeting four primary amino acid residues: alanine, tyrosine, phenylalanine, and aspartate/threonine [31].

Prajapati et al. [38] isolated a protease from Lapsi fruit that demonstrated thermostability, autoclavability, resistance to extremely acidic and basic pH levels, and sustained catalytic activity even after TCA precipitations. SDS enhanced its proteolytic activity, although the fruit peel extract displayed no apparent proteolytic activity. Proteases were also isolated from Lapsi roots [39], including bark, and leaves. They noted that root protease exhibited tighter substrate binding compared to leaf, bark, and fruit proteases [37].

Purification of proteases from different parts of the Lapsi tree opens avenues for potential commercialization. These proteases could find applications in protein digestion, blood stain removal, contact lens cleaning, and body hair clearance. Further exploration into their mechanism of action and pharmacological parameters could pave the way for designing lead compounds and developing therapeutically active drugs. The widespread commercialization of Lapsi plant proteases could notably improve the economic status of local farmers [38].

6.5. Immunostimulant activity in aquaculture

Lapsi fruit extract showed promising potential in stimulating the immune response in fish, presenting a significant advantage in aquaculture. When introduced as a dietary supplement, it elevated blood parameters in fish larvae, thereby fortifying their immune systems [40]. Studies involving rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) [41,42], Silver carp (Hypophthalmichthy smolitrix), and Common carp indicated significant improvements in various blood parameters (total protein, albumin, and globulins) when fed with diets supplemented with Lapsi fruit extract. For instance, silver carp fish fed with a diet supplemented with 0.08 % Lapsi fruit extract exhibited increased total protein levels [43]. Similar findings indicating elevated serum proteins, albumin, and globulin levels have been reported in fish consuming diets enriched with extracts from various plants, showcasing the potential of natural supplements in improving fish immunity [[44], [45], [46]].

The comprehensive benefits of Lapsi fruit extract as an effective immunostimulant in aquaculture are summarized in Table 3, highlighting its significant impact on enhancing the immune response and fostering overall health in aquatic organisms. These findings underscore the potential of Lapsi fruit extract as a promising natural resource in augmenting the immune systems of aquatic species and development of sustainable aquaculture practices.

Table 3.

Beneficial effects of ethanol extract of the fruit of Lapsi as immunostimulants in aquaculture.

Type of fish	Affected organ of fish	Beneficial effects shown	References
Labeorohita (carp rohu)	Blood, liver, bone	Increase in vitamin C concentration	[47]
Labeorohita (carp rohu)	Blood	Increase in hemoglobin, WBCs, RBCs, packed cell volume (PCV) and other erythrocyte indices	[48]
Oncorhynchus mykiss (rainbow trout)	Blood	Increase in RBC, hemoglobin and erythrocyte indices	[42]
Hypophthalmichthys molitrix (silver carp)	Blood	Increase in albumin and globulin level,	[43]
		Decrease in triglycerides and cholesterol levels
	Liver	Higher β-actin, insulin-like growth factors I and II
	Head and kidney	Higher interleukins, tumor necrosis factor-α
Pangasianodon hypophthalmus (silver striped catfish)	Blood	Increase in total protein, alumin and globulin levels and decrease in Glutamic Oxaloacetic Transaminase (SGOT), Serum Glutamic Pyruvic Transaminase (SGPT), Serum Alkaline Phosphatase (SALP) levels	[49]
Cyprinus carpio (common carp)	Brain and liver	Enhances the ascorbic acid level	[50]

6.6. Cardioprotective potential

Lapsi fruit serves as a traditional remedy in Mongolia for various cardiovascular issues, including myocardial ischemia and enhancing blood circulation. The total flavonoids in C. axillaris are recognized as the active component for improving cardiac function. In rat models of ischemia/reperfusion-induced myocardial infarction, administration of these flavonoids significantly improved cardiac function and reduced myocardial fibrosis. Moreover, they increased antioxidant enzyme levels like catalase, glutathione peroxidase, and superoxide dismutase while decreasing malondialdehyde levels, indicating protection against ischemia/reperfusion injury [51]. These flavonoids also showed activities of reducing expressions of matrix metalloproteinases (MMP-2, 9), phosphor-IKBα (p-IKBα), and transforming growth factor-β1 (TGF-β1) [52], further demonstrating their cardioprotective potential. Additionally, oral administration of flavonoids derived from C. axillaris folium effectively reduced aconitine-induced arrhythmias in rats, specifically impacting left ventricular systolic pressure and maximal velocity rate of ventricular pressure without affecting left ventricular end-diastolic pressure [53]. Lapsi fruit pericarp is therapeutically used to promote blood circulation, offering potential benefits in treating cardiovascular diseases. Aqueous extracts from C. axillaris fruit exhibited inhibition of oxidative damage induced by D-galactose in mouse models, highlighting its potential cardioprotective effects [8].

7. Toxicological properties

There is limited information available on the specific toxicological properties of Lapsi. However, based on the available studies, Lapsi appears to have a good safety profile. Lapsi has been traditionally used in various cultures for its health benefits without reports of significant toxicity issues. In an in vivo study evaluating the anticancer activity of Lapsi fruit extract in Swiss albino mice, the extract was administered orally at doses of 200 mg/kg and 400 mg/kg body weight. These doses did not exhibit any overt signs of toxicity in the animals during the study period [35]. While some studies have reported cytotoxic effects of Lapsi extracts against certain cancer cell lines, these effects appear to be selective towards malignant cells. For example, proanthocyanidins isolated from Lapsi fruit peels exhibited potent antiproliferative activity against HepG2 and Caco-2 cancer cells but had minimal effects on normal cells. The antioxidant compounds present in Lapsi, such as flavonoids and proanthocyanidins, may contribute to its safety profile by neutralizing free radicals and reducing oxidative stress, which can lead to cellular damage [54]. It is important to note that while Lapsi appears to be relatively safe based on the available evidence, further toxicological studies are needed to fully evaluate its safety profile, particularly with regards to long-term use and potential interactions with medications.

8. Treatment of burns

In Vietnam, the traditional use of the aqueous extract from Lapsi tree bark for treating burns has been a longstanding practice. Subsequent research conducted at the Vietnam Sweden General Hospital in Uong Bi, Quang Ninh region, validated the efficacy of this traditional remedy [14]. The application of the bark extract onto burns results in the formation of a protective film over the wound as it dries, accelerating the healing process. This extract not only prevents infections due to its antibacterial properties but also stimulates tissue regeneration, aiding in rapid recovery [55]. Clinical trials comparing the effectiveness of C. axillaris tree bark extract against saline gauze treatment for second-degree burns further confirmed its efficacy. The extract-treated wounds demonstrated accelerated healing and proved to be a cost-effective treatment option, significantly reducing the healing time while offering ease of application.

9. Nanoporous activated carbon from lapsi seed stone

Nanoporous activated carbon (NAC) derived from Lapsi seed stones represents an innovative utilization of agricultural waste in creating a valuable material. The Lapsi seed stone, often considered a byproduct, contains lignocellulosic biomass, making it an ideal precursor for producing activated carbon. The resulting nanoporous activated carbon from Lapsi seed stones possesses several advantageous characteristics including, high surface area, microporosity, and adsorption potential. These qualities make it suitable for various applications, notably in environmental remediation, particularly in wastewater treatment [17]. In the realm of wastewater treatment, NAC derived from Lapsi seed stones exhibits great promise in reducing the environmental impact of diverse pollutants such as dyes, solid wastes, and heavy metals. Research indicates its effectiveness in addressing arsenic (As) contamination in groundwater. NAC compositions, such as Lapsi seed stone with ZnCl₂ (1:1) [56] or iron (Fe) [57] impregnated NAC, have shown remarkable results in reducing As concentration from levels as high as 800 ppb to below the temporary guideline value of 50 ppb in drinking water. The efficiency has been demonstrated with impressive adsorption rates of up to 96.6 %. Additionally, this versatile material finds potential in energy storage, particularly in applications like supercapacitors, owing to its unique porous structure. Its adsorption capabilities make it suitable for various industrial processes and pharmaceutical applications, serving as an effective adsorbent for diverse molecules. Further research and exploration can unlock even more innovative uses for this resourceful material.

10. Commercial potentials

Lapsi holds a significant place in the Nepali market, deeply rooted in both tradition and commerce. Revered for its unique tangy taste and multifaceted utility, Lapsi stands as a cherished ingredient in Nepali cuisine, particularly in the preparation of pickles, chutneys, and traditional delicacies. Its sour and slightly sweet flavor profile makes it a sought-after fruit, especially during the festive seasons, where its presence in local markets surges. Furthermore, the increasing global interest in exotic and unique fruits has sparked a renewed appreciation for Lapsi, potentially opening avenues for its export. Despite this, challenges persist in terms of supply chain management and commercialization due to its irregular fruit-bearing cycles, susceptibility to certain pests and diseases, and limited post-harvest management practices, which affect its shelf life. However, efforts to process Lapsi into various value-added products like jams, candies, and beverages are gradually gaining attraction, offering opportunities for market expansion and economic growth within Nepal and potentially beyond its borders.

11. Conclusions and future perspectives

Lapsi stands as a remarkable multipurpose botanical resource abundant in bioactive compounds with diverse biological activities. Its multifaceted utility spans nutritional, medicinal, and industrial domains, rendering it as a valuable asset. From its leaves, bark, twigs, roots, trunk, to its fruit and peel, every part of the Lapsi tree harbors phytochemicals, antioxidants, and specific enzymes that confer various health benefits. The presence of flavonoids, polyphenols, limonoids, and proteases highlights its pharmacological potential, including antimicrobial, cardioprotective, antioxidant, and wound-healing properties. These discoveries pave the way for novel drug development, offering natural alternatives or adjuncts to existing pharmaceutical formulations. Further, in-depth investigations into its phytochemical constituents and their synergistic effects may lead to the development of targeted drugs for various ailments, potentially addressing conditions like cardiovascular diseases, cancer, microbial infections, and burns. In the nutraceutical sector, the nutritional richness of Lapsi, especially in its fruit and leaves, presents opportunities for functional food products and dietary supplements enriched with essential nutrients and health-promoting compounds. Cosmeceutical applications also stand to benefit from Lapsi's bioactive compounds, potentially incorporated into skincare formulations for their antioxidant and anti-aging properties. Lapsi seed stone, often considered a byproduct is an ideal precursor for producing nanoporous activated carbon. Its adsorption capabilities make it suitable for various industrial processes and pharmaceutical applications. However, to fully unlock Lapsi's potential, future research should delve deeper into isolating and characterizing specific bioactive compounds, understanding their mechanisms of action, conducting clinical trials to validate their therapeutic effects, and optimizing extraction techniques for commercial scalability. Furthermore, exploring sustainable cultivation methods and assessing genetic variability for enhanced bioactive compound content could significantly contribute to maximizing Lapsi's potential in these industries, fostering innovation and product development.

CRediT authorship contribution statement

Summi Rai: Writing – review & editing, Writing – original draft, Methodology. Sawan Kumar Rajbanshi: Writing – original draft. Jashuda Chauhan: Writing – original draft. Pooja Shah: Writing – original draft. Eliza Acharya Siwakoti: Writing – original draft. Anima Shrestha: Writing – original draft. Prakash Poudel: Writing – original draft. Ajaya Bhattarai: Writing – review & editing, Writing – original draft, Supervision, Methodology, Conceptualization. Hari Prasad Devkota: Writing – review & editing, Writing – original draft, Supervision, Methodology, Conceptualization.

Informed consent statement

Not applicable.

Institutional review board statement

Not applicable.

Data and code availability statement

No data was used for the research described in the article.

Funding

This research received no external funding.

Declaration of competing interest

The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.