Abstract
Background:
Research has shown that negative sexual attitudes are associated with lower levels of sexual functioning among men and women, however, little is known about how attitudes about mothers as sexual beings are associated with sexual functioning for parents.
Aim:
The aim of the current study was to examine how attitudes toward mothers as sexual beings (ATMSB) were associated with sexual functioning for women and partners of women among parents with young children.
Methods:
Cross-sectional retrospective data were collected online via Qualtrics Panels from 475 women and men (partnered to women) who reported having their first child within the last 5 years.
Outcomes:
The Revised Female Sexual Function Index and revised Expanded Prostate Cancer Index Composite–Short Form were used to measure sexual function in women and men, respectively.
Results:
Results indicated that after controlling for age and relationship length, more positive ATMSB predicted higher levels of sexual functioning (and multiple domains of functioning) for men and women.
Clinical Implications:
These findings indicate that sexual functioning, especially in parents, is linked to the attitudes held toward seeing mothers as inherently sexual (or not).
Strengths and Limitations:
This is the first study to examine how attitudes toward mothers as sexual beings can impact sexual functioning, though the cis heterosexual mostly white sample is a notable limitation.
Conclusion:
ATMSB may need to be examined and challenged in the context of treating sexual dysfunction during this transitional period for mothers and those partnered to mothers.
Keywords: sexual function, sexual attitudes, mothers, parents, children
Introduction
The impact of transitioning to parenthood on sexual functioning has been a focus of research for decades.1 In a recent review of studies investigating the role of parenthood on sexual functioning for women, 41% to 86.7% of women reported experiencing difficulties with sexual functioning in 1 or more domains at 3 months postpartum, and 64% reported experiencing difficulties with sexual functioning at 6 months postpartum.1 Findings highlight the importance of considering psychosocial factors including identity and role changes, body image, social support, partner- and couple-related factors, and cultural messages about women and sexuality.1 In general, negative sexual attitudes are associated with lower levels of sexual functioning for men (measured with the International Index of Erectile Function) and women (measured with the Female Sexual Function Index [FSFI]).2 Further, cultural attitudes about women’s sexuality often creates a dichotomy in which sexual women (ie, a woman who willingly engages in sexual activity, enjoys sexual activity, desires sexual activity, and/or obtains pleasure from engaging in sexual activity) are not perceived as good mothers, and good mothers are not perceived as sexual beings.3,4 Given the high rates of sexual functioning concerns among new parents and the cultural attitudes about incompatibility of motherhood and sexuality, the aim of the current study was to examine associations between attitudes toward mothers as sexual beings (ATMSB) and sexual functioning for mothers and men partnered to mothers who transitioned to parenthood within the last 5 years.
Most research investigating transitioning to parenthood and sexual functioning for women report decreases in sexual functioning across the transition to parenthood.5,6 Domains of sexual functioning that are most associated with transitioning to parenthood include lower levels of sexual desire5,6 and sexual arousal.5,6 Some research also reports difficulty with orgasm,6 although these findings are mixed with other studies finding no association between orgasm and the transition to parenthood.5,7 Interestingly, having children does not seem to be as strongly associated with reports of pain as is seen for desire and arousal response.5,6,8 However, pain during intercourse still impacts 36% of women at 6 months postpartum,9 and mode of delivery may influence experiences of pain during intercourse for women.10
Problems or concerns with sexual desire are commonly reported issues for many women who become mothers.6,11,12 In a recent study comparing new parents in the 12-month period after the birth of their first child and a community sample of couples of similar demographics, women had lower levels of sexual desire at 3, 6, and 12 months postpartum compared with women in the community sample and compared with their romantic partners (who were also new parents).13 Further, a large proportion of women in that study reported clinically low sexual desire (39%−59% depending on the measurement time) and fathers reported higher levels of sexual desire when compared with mothers within the first year after the birth of the first child and 4 years later,11,13 indicating a gender difference in the experience of parenthood on sexual functioning.
However, not all women experience problems with sexual function in the postpartum period. For example, Dawson et al14 reported 3 trajectories for postpartum women identifying just over half of their sample (52%) reporting “minimal” problems with sexual functioning during the postpartum period. An additional 35% of women reported moderate problems with sexual functioning at 3 months postpartum but improved substantially by the end of the first year. Postpartum sexual function is significantly influenced by prepregnancy levels of sexual functioning.15 Postpartum sexual functioning for new mothers is also associated with body satisfaction, genital self-image, and self-consciousness during physical intimacy.16 Further, partner factors including relationship satisfaction are associated with women’s sexual functioning in the postpartum period.7,17
For romantic partners of women (mostly men in these studies) in the postpartum period up to 1 year after birth of their first child, lower sexual desire was reported at 3 and 6 months postpartum when compared with community samples of partners (also mostly men).13 However, by 12 months postpartum, there were no reported differences between partners whose female partner had their first child 12 months prior and those from the community sample of partners. Additionally, it may not just be during the transition to parenthood, but also something about parenthood itself that impacts sexual function. For example, one study found that sexual contentment for first-time parents was low at 6 months and remained through to 4 years postpartum regardless of the birth of additional children.11 A variety of factors can influence sexual functioning of parents, and these may persist years after the traditional 12-month postpartum period so often referenced in the literature.
ATMSB are the attitudes one holds toward mothers as being capable of both being sexual (ie, willingly engaging in sexual activity, enjoying sexual activity, desiring sexual activity, and/or obtaining pleasure from engaging in sexual activity) and a “good” mother in addition to their attitudes related to mothers’ interest in and behaviors regarding sexuality. Prior research has found that more positive ATMSB are associated with higher levels of sexual satisfaction and sexual desire for women and men (partnered to women) with children 5 years of age or younger,18 but this work did not extend to other important facets of sexual function. Qualitative research has highlighted women’s experiences in not feeling like a “sexual being” after transitioning into parenthood.19,20 Women also report believing that when women become mothers, they should change their behaviors to not appear as sexy and/or sexual as was acceptable prior to having children.21 Gender-related sexual attitudes are associated with sexual functioning for men and women in the general population,2 and so ATMSB are likely associated with sexual functioning for women and men partnered to women with young children; however, this has not been tested. Therefore, the focus of this study is to examine the associations between ATMSB and sexual functioning for men and women with young children and, if so, test the specific domains of sexual functioning that are associated with ATMSB for men and women with young children.
Methods
Participants and procedures
This cross-sectional retrospective online study is part of a larger study examining sexuality and relationship factors among individuals who have become parents within the past 5 years. Data were collected through Qualtrics Panels from 475 individuals living in the United States in long-term relationships and reported having their first child within the past 5 years. These criteria were chosen based on research reporting that maternal and/or reproductive identity development is likely nonlinear and unique for each individual.22,23 One’s identity as a mother is a process that includes several stages that are highly variable,22,23 and so we wanted to leave room for full maternal and/or reproductive identity development while also providing a reasonable cut-off point in which participants’ understanding of this identity development for themselves and/or their partner was still relevant for them. Participants were compensated $1.88 to $3.75 by Qualtrics Panels for participating in the study. All study protocols were approved by the Institutional Review Board at California State University, Chico in the United States prior to data collection. Data were stored in a password protected, online location in which only the authors of the study had access. All data were analyzed using in IBM SPSS 27.
Participants’ (men = 248, women = 227) average age was 34.42 ± 6.94, ranging from 18 to 60 years. Most participants were in a monogamous relationship (95.8%) and married and living together (79.4%). The majority identified as heterosexual/straight (84.2%) and White (64%), with nearly 15% identifying as African American and 23.3% identifying as Hispanic/Latinx/of Spanish origin. This sample was highly educated, with 65.1% having a 4-year degree or higher level of education. The majority of the sample reported having either 1 child (39.3%) or 2 children (43.66%); this included biological, joint custody, and/or adoptive children that could be living with or not living with the participant. The remaining reported having 3 to 6 children. Of the women in the sample (n = 227), 97.3% (n = 221) reported being a biological parent to at least 1 child in the household under 5 years of age. Of the men in the sample (n = 248), 93.6% (n = 232) reported that their partner was the biological parent to at least 1 child in the household under 5 years of age. See Table 1 for additional demographics.
Table 1.
Demographic Information.
| Men (n = 246) | Women (n = 227) | |
|---|---|---|
| Age | 36.44 ± 6.52 | 32.41 ± 6.75 |
| Race/ethnicity (select all that apply) | ||
| Asian | 7 (2.8) | 29 (12.9) |
| Black/African American | 24 (9.8) | 45 (20) |
| Hispanic/Latinx | 15 (6.1) | 49 (21.8) |
| Middle Eastern/North African | 0 | 4 (1.8) |
| Native American/Alaskan Native | 1 (0.4) | 4 (1.8) |
| Native Hawaiian/Pacific Islander | 2 (0.8) | 3 (1.3) |
| White | 203 (82.5) | 101 (44.9) |
| Multiracial | 0 | 2 (0.9) |
| Prefer not to answer | 0 | 2 (0.9) |
| Hispanic/Latinx? | ||
| Yes | 29 (11.8) | 78 (34.7) |
| No | 216 (87.8) | 144 (64) |
| Unsure | 1 (0.4) | 3 (1.3) |
| Sexual orientation | ||
| Heterosexual/straight | 218 (88.6) | 185 (82.2) |
| Bisexual/pansexual | 20 (8.1) | 24 (10.7) |
| Lesbian/gay | 0 | 8 (3.6) |
| Questioning, uncertain | 2 (0.8) | 2 (0.9) |
| Asexual | 2 (0.8) | 5 (2.2) |
| Something else | 4 (1.6) | 1 (0.4) |
| Gender identity of partner (check all that apply) | ||
| Woman | 241 (98) | 44 (19.6) |
| Man | 3 (1.2) | 184 (81.8) |
| Gender nonconforming | 2 (0.8) | 4 (1.8) |
| Transgender | 2 (0.8) | 2 (0.9) |
| Intersex | 0 | 1 (0.4) |
| Something else | 0 | 2 (0.9) |
| Relationship length | 9.46 ± 6.38 | 7.9 ± 6.14 |
| Relationship status | ||
| Married, living with spouse | 214 (87) | 163 (72.4) |
| Married, not living with spouse | 5 (2) | 8 (3.6) |
| Partnered, living with partner | 21 (8.5) | 43 (19.1) |
| Partnered, not living with partner | 2 (0.8) | 4 (1.8) |
| Divorced, remarried and living with spouse | 1 (0.4) | 2 (0.9) |
| Divorced, remarried and not living with spouse | 1 (0.4) | 0 |
| Divorced, living with new partner | 0 | 1 (0.4) |
| Divorced, partnered, not living with new partner | 0 | 2 (0.9) |
| Partnered with multiple partners | 2 (0.8) | 2 (0.9) |
| Relationship type | ||
| Monogamous | 237 (96.3) | 215 (95.6) |
| Consensually nonmonogamous | 9 (3.7) | 10 (4.4) |
| Education | ||
| Grade school | 1 (0.4) | 5 (2.2) |
| Middle school | 1 (0.4) | 2 (0.9) |
| Some high school | 4 (1.6) | 12 (5.3) |
| High school graduate/GED | 18 (7.3) | 37 (16.4) |
| Some college/university or 2-y degree | 24 (9.8) | 55 (24.4) |
| College/university 4-y degree | 99 (40.2) | 76 (33.8) |
| Graduate school | 88 (35.8) | 37 (16.4) |
| Something else | 11 (4.5) | 1 (0.4) |
| Biological parent (self) | ||
| Yes, all of the children | 220 (89.4) | 205 (91.1) |
| Yes, some of the children | 9 (3.7) | 14 (6.2) |
| No, none of the children | 13 (5.3) | 6 (2.7) |
| Unsure | 4 (1.6) | |
| Biological parent (partner) | ||
| Yes, all of the children | 206 (83.7) | 177 (78.7) |
| Yes, some of the children | 24 (9.8) | 36 (16) |
| No, none of the children | 11 (4.5) | 11 (4.9) |
| Unsure | 5 (2) | 1 (0.4) |
| Number of children | 1.82 ± 0.92 | 2 ± 1.15 |
| Age of youngest child | ||
| 6 wk or younger | 9 (3.6) | 15 (6.6) |
| 7 wk to 6 months | 13 (5.28) | 28 (12.33) |
| 7 mo to 1 y | 33 (13.4) | 50 (22) |
| 2 y | 45 (18.29) | 47 (20.7) |
| 3 y | 32 (13) | 35 (15.42) |
| 4 y | 38 (15.45) | 22 (9.69) |
| 5 y | 73 (29.67) | 28 (12.33) |
| Currently pregnant (self) | ||
| Yes | 35 (15.6) | |
| No | 189 (84) | |
| Unsure | 1 (0.4) | |
| Currently pregnant (partner) | ||
| Yes | 43 (17.5) | 28 (12.4) |
| No | 196 (79.7) | 195 (86.7) |
| Unsure | 7 (2.8) | 2 (0.9) |
| Breastfeeding (self) | ||
| Yes | 64 (28.4) | |
| No | 159 (70.7) | |
| Unsure | 2 (0.9) | |
| Breastfeeding (partner) | ||
| Yes | 57 (23.2) | 33 (14.7) |
| No | 187 (76) | 189 (84) |
| Unsure | 2 (0.8) | 3 (1.3) |
Values are mean ± SD or n (%).
Measures
ATMSB18 was measured using an 11-item scale that includes 2 subscales: (1) sexuality and quality of mothering and (2) mothers’ sexual interests and behaviors. An example item from the first subscale is, “Sexual women who are mothers are more likely to be,” with responses options on a 7-point scale ranging from 1 (very ineffective mothers) to 7 (very effective mothers). An example from the second subscale is, “Compared with women in general, sexual activity for women who are mothers is,” with response options ranging from 1 (much less important) to 7 (much more important). Scores for each item are totaled for a summative score with higher scores indicating more positive attitudes about mothers as sexual beings. The Cronbach’s α score for the full scale was 0.94 (α = 0.93 for women and α = 0.94 for men), the mothers’ sexual interest and behavior subscale 0.91 (α = 0.90 for women and α = 0.92 for men), and the sexuality and quality of mothering subscale 0.91 (α = 0.92 for women and α = 0.89 for men), all indicating strong internal consistency.
Women’s sexual function was measured using an adapted version of the FSFI (FSFI lifelong version).24,25 This scale includes 19 items with 6 subscales that measure sexual desire, arousal, lubrication, orgasm, satisfaction, and pain. The original lifelong version of the FSFI asks participants to rate their levels of each sexual functioning domain within their lifetime. The scale was adapted for the current study to ask participants to rate each item using the time frame of “since they became sexually active with their current romantic partner.” This adaptation was made to include a measure of general sexual functioning while also considering the contextual framework of individual partner and couple-level influences on sexual functioning for women. Total scores for each domain were calculated and multiplied by a constant. Total scores were calculated by summing all domain scores. Higher scores were indicative of higher levels of sexual functioning in women. Cronbach’s α score for the total scale was 0.80. The Cronbach’s α score for the desire subscale was 0.78, for the arousal subscale was 0.89, for the lubrication subscale was 0.87, for the orgasm subscale was 0.84, for the satisfaction subscale was 0.86, and for the pain subscale was 0.90.
Men’s sexual functioning was measured using an adapted version of the Expanded Prostate Cancer Index Composite–Short Form.26 This subscale includes 6 items assessing orgasm, erectile function, and sexual desire in addition to general “ability to function sexually” and how problematic participants rate their sexual function has been. The scale was adapted for the current study to ask participants to rate each one of these outcomes since they became sexually active with their current partner. For example, the following item was included in our survey to measure frequency of erections: “How would you describe the FREQUENCY of your erections since you became sexually active with your current partner?” To measure self-reported sexual functioning, the following item was included: “Overall, how would you rate your ability to function sexually since you became sexually active with your partner?” To measure self-reported sexual functioning problems, the following item was included: “Overall, how big a problem has your sexual function or lack of sexual function been for you since you became sexually active with your current partner?” Each item response option was given a standardized value. The average of the standardized value of each of the 6 items was taken for a total score. Higher scores indicate higher levels of sexual functioning. Cronbach’s α score for the total scale was 0.79.
Results
Bivariate correlations were conducted to examine associations between ATMSB and sexual functioning for men and women separately. Results indicated that ATMSB were associated with multiple sexual functioning domains for men and for women in our study (see Tables 2 and 3). All domains of sexual functioning were associated with ATMSB (desire, orgasm, lubrication, arousal, satisfaction) except for pain for women. All items of sexual functioning were associated with ATMSB for men (ability to obtain an erection, ability to orgasm, frequency of erection, quality of erection, self-reported sexual functioning) except for self-reported sexual problems for men.
Table 2.
Correlations between sexual functioning and ATMSB for women (n = 227).
| Mean | Desire (Mean = 4.19) |
Arousal (Mean = 4.52) |
Lubrication (Mean = 4.66) |
Orgasm (Mean = 4.36) |
Satisfaction (Mean = 4.61) |
Pain (Mean = 3.11) |
|
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Full ATMSB scale | 56.53 | 0.464a | 0.460a | 0.324b | 0.491a | 0.437a | 0.279 |
| Mothers’ sexual interest and behavior subscale | 35.83 | 0.438** | 0.413a | 0.282 | 0.452a | 0.375a | 0.242 |
| Sexuality and quality of mothering subscale | 20.69 | 0.457a | 0.489a | 0.359b | 0.503a | 0.595a | 0.311b |
Abbreviation: ATMSB, attitudes toward mothers as sexual beings.
p value is equal to or less than .01.
p value is equal to or less than .05.
Table 3.
Correlations between sexual functioning and ATMSB for men (n = 248).
| Mean | Ability to erection (Mean = 80.14) |
Ability to orgasm (Mean = 82.36) |
Frequency of erection (Mean = 72.38) |
Quality of erection (Mean = 83.64) |
Self-reported Sexual function (Mean = 81.85) |
Self-reported Sexual function problems (Mean = 77.82) |
|
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Full ATMSB scale | 60.22 | 0.369a | 0.371a | 0.167a | 0.163b | 0.387a | 0.067 |
| Mothers’ sexual interest and behavior subscale | 38.48 | 0.374a | 0.363a | 0.168a | 0.168a | 0.402a | 0.064 |
| Sexuality and quality of mothering subscale | 21.74 | 0.298a | 0.321a | 0.138b | 0.128b | 0.298a | 0.061 |
Abbreviation: ATMSB, attitudes toward mothers as sexual beings.
p value is equal to or less than .01.
p value is equal to or less than .05.
Next, several multilevel linear regression models were conducted for men and women separately (due to the separate measurement tools for sexual function), controlling for age, relationship length, number of children, pregnancy status, and breastfeeding status of self and/or partner(s). For women, ATMSB was a significant predictor of all facets of sexual function, such that more positive attitudes toward mothers as sexual beings were significantly predictive of higher levels of sexual functioning. The most salient model was arousal (β = 0.369, R2 = 0.155, P < .001), though ATMSB was also a significant predictor of desire (β = 0.381, R2 = 0.144, P < .001), lubrication (β = 0.25, R2 = 0.188, P < .001), orgasm (β = 0.314, R2 = 0.151, P < .001), satisfaction (β = 0.278, R2 = 0.113, P < .001), and pain (β = 0.194, R2 = 0.120, P = .004) (see Table 4). For men, ATMSB was a significant predictor of all facets of sexual function except for the item measuring self-reported sexual functioning problems. The most salient model predicted ability to obtain an erection (β = 0.361, R2 = 0.149, P < .001), though ATMSB was also a significant predictor of self-reported sexual functioning (β = 0.38, R2 = 0.148, P < .001), ability to orgasm (β = 0.357, R2 = 0.129, P < .001), quality of erection (β = 0.172, R2 = 0.054, P = .007), and frequency of erection (β = 0.17, R2 = 0.067, P = .008), in which more positive ATMSB predicted higher levels of sexual functioning (see Table 5).
Table 4.
ATMSB predicting FSFI domains for women.
| Domain | b | SE | β | P | Adjusted R2 |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Desire | 0.043 | 0.007 | 0.381 | <.001 | 0.144 |
| Arousal | 0.036 | 0.006 | 0.369 | <.001 | 0.155 |
| Lubrication | 0.026 | 0.007 | 0.253 | <.001 | 0.188 |
| Orgasm | 0.034 | 0.007 | 0.314 | <.001 | 0.151 |
| Satisfaction | 0.029 | 0.007 | 0.278 | <.001 | 0.113 |
| Pain | 0.025 | 0.009 | 0.194 | .004 | 0.120 |
Bonferroni correction was used for multiple comparisons (6 comparisons); P < .008. Each model controlled for age, relationship length, number of children, pregnancy status (self and/or partner), and breastfeeding status (self and/or partner). Abbreviation: ATMSB, attitudes toward mothers as sexual beings; FSFI, Female Sexual Function Index.
Table 5.
ATMSB predicting EPIC-SF items for men.
| Domain | b | SE | β | P | Adjusted R2 |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Ability to obtain erection | 0.721 | 0.120 | 0.361 | <.001 | 0.149 |
| Ability to orgasm | 0.658 | 0.113 | 0.357 | <.001 | 0.129 |
| Quality of erection | 0.415 | 0.153 | 0.172 | .007 | 0.054 |
| Frequency of erection | 0.489 | 0.182 | 0.170 | .008 | 0.067 |
| Self-reported sexual function | 0.789 | 0.125 | 0.380 | <.001 | 0.148 |
| Self-reported sexual function problems | 0.216 | 0.180 | 0.078 | .231 | 0.012 |
Bonferroni correction was used for multiple comparisons (6 comparisons); P < .008. Each model controlled for age, relationship length, number of children, pregnancy status (partner), breastfeeding status (partner). Abbreviation: ATMSB, attitudes toward mothers as sexual beings; EPIC-SF, Expanded Prostate Cancer Index Composite–Short Form.
Discussion
The aim of this study was to examine associations between ATMSB and sexual functioning for men and women who became parents in the last 5 years. Findings indicated that the attitudes people hold toward mothers as sexual beings are relevant for sexual functioning for men and women with young children. With prior research indicating that 64% of women experiencing difficulties with sexual functioning at 6 months postpartum,1 there are several issues at play contributing to these difficulties. Among them are the negative attitudes and cultural incompatibility of motherhood and sexuality that persist,3,4 high rates of sexual functioning concerns during early parenthood,1 and the current findings around negative attitudes toward mothers as sexual beings. This work extends prior research reporting associations between more general negative gender-related sexual attitudes and lower levels of sexual functioning among men and women.2
Specifically, for mothers themselves, all domains of sexual functioning as measured by the FSFI (adapted lifelong version) were significantly predicted by ATMSB such that more positive attitudes about mothers as sexual beings predicted higher levels of sexual functioning for women with young children. Research has shown that women themselves believe that when they become mothers, they should change their behaviors to not appear as sexy and/or sexual as they may have prior to becoming a mother.21 Our findings highlight the impact of societal and cultural expectations of women as mothers. The societal belief that there is some sort of incompatibility between motherhood and sexuality3,4,21 has an impact on the actual sexual function of mothers. Women are often portrayed as either “good” or “bad” mothers in the media27 and perceiving a woman as “highly sexual” influences perceptions of her as a “bad mother.”4 This is aligned with previous research showing that psychosocial outcomes may have a stronger association with sexual functioning for mothers when compared with biological factors,14 and our findings further highlight the importance of paying attention to context when treating female sexual dysfunction.
For men with young children who are partnered to women, more positive attitudes about mothers as sexual beings predicted higher levels of sexual functioning in nearly all domains. The ability to obtain erection, the ability to orgasm, and the quality and frequency of erection were all associated with more positive attitudes toward mothers as sexual beings. Perhaps some of this is due to a partner effect given the research that has shown that women may change their behaviors to not appear as sexy and/or sexual when entering motherhood.21 Future research would benefit from examining this in a sample of couples and with a longitudinal design to fully test this hypothesis. It could also be that positive attitudes toward mothers as sexual beings protect against the high rates of sexual functioning concerns during early parenthood.1 Self-reported sexual functioning problems were not a significant predictor of attitudes toward mothers as sexual beings. None of the sexual function measures utilized in this study measured distress, an important factor to consider for clinical relevance. An important question that we cannot answer is whether distressing sexual function concerns are also mitigated by attitudes toward mothers as sexual beings in the context of a sexual relationship with a mother. Additionally, we did not measure men’s experiences with sexual privacy. Given that many parents are likely to experience a lack of sexual privacy and research shows that men’s lack of sexual privacy is associated with sexual functioning concerns,28 this may be an important consideration for future research.
Although this study was the first to investigate how attitudes toward mothers as sexual beings might be protective of sexual function issues in the early years of parenthood, it is not without its limitations. These data are cross-sectional individual-level data, so no inferences can be made about causality and the dyadic context was not taken into consideration with this research design. Research has consistently demonstrated that sexual problems impact all members of the relationship,29 and it would be beneficial to gain greater insight into these research questions in a sample of couples with young children so that partner effects could be examined. In addition to having dyadic data, it would be helpful to further understand the level of conflict within the relationship. Deeply held attitudes can exacerbate conflict if those attitudes are counter to the success of the relationship. Understanding the conflict within the relationship could provide greater insight into the many issues that impact sexual function as a couple navigates early parenthood. Additionally, we included an adapted measure of the FSFI lifelong version24 that measured participants’ sexual functioning since becoming sexually active with their current partner. Though we wanted to account for the partner dynamics that may influence sexual functioning for women, this measure has limitations in terms of understanding current levels of sexual functioning for women-identified participants.
In addition to other study limitations, we did not include gender-expansive parents in this study in part due to the binary and gendered nature of our sexual functioning measures, despite the fact that almost 20% of transgender people are parents.30 More inclusive measures are beginning to emerge and these more inclusive tools (eg, Lynch et al and Spencer et al)31,32 may begin to address some of the gaps in examining sexual function beyond the gender binary. Our sample was also primarily heterosexual and White, a further limitation of this work. There is a need to center experiences of non-White parents, especially due to specific intersectional stereotypes portraying Black women as hypersexual, asexual, or ultimate caregivers33 that may be uniquely related to ATMSB and/or sexual functioning for them and their partners. This is a significant gap in the current literature that future research would benefit from addressing.
Conclusion
The current study points to an area that is understudied in the transition to parenthood literature and sexual function literature; the role of held attitudes toward mothers as sexual beings in sexual function of parents in the initial phases of parenthood. Given that 86% of women in their 40s report being mothers,34 the attitudes people hold about whether mothers can be both sexual and effective parents is important to the sexual lives of those mothers and those who are partnered to them. These data support a strong link between these attitudes and sexual function, not just for the women themselves, but also for men who are partnered to them. This is an area that clinicians, researchers, educators, and the general public can put to good use when considering how to improve the sexual lives of people with children by assessing and addressing those attitudes and tackling the stereotypes or scripts that people may hold.
Funding
This study was funded by California State University, Chico [there is no grant number].
Footnotes
Conflicts of interest
We have no known conflict of interest to disclose.
References
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