Women and the workplace

Over half of the world’s population is female, and as gender construct is a socially rather than physiologically determined concept, discrimination against them is common.[1] Employers and coworkers may be the source of discrimination in the workplace. Gender discrimination comes in many forms, such as sexual harassment, pay disparities between the sexes, and gender inequality. Workplace gender discrimination arises from a variety of factors, some of which are significant and include the gender pay gap, women’s limited career advancement opportunities, playing multiple roles for lower pay, gender stereotyping for higher managerial positions in business organizations, sexual harassment, and job insecurity. Low productivity, low efficiency, and a lack of motivation among staff members are possible outcomes of workplace gender discrimination.[2] The century-old tendency to designate men as suited for the workplace and women as suited for the home is still present in the older beliefs of seeing women as a typical maternal wall, ideal worker, and ideal homemaker.[3] Employers in the past have been free to refuse to recruit single women of “marriageable age,” fire women after they got married (because it was their husband’s responsibility to provide for the family and not them), and refuse to hire married women because they believe in these glaringly different preconceptions.[4] Each person has different gender roles and stereotypes for men and women, depending on how gender socialization has been taught to them from their parents, how they feel about the division of housework, and/or how they feel about people of the other sex.[4] It is essential to look at the numerous forms of discrimination prevailing in the workplace when it comes to women. Even though we are headed toward progress, women face particular challenges in their professional work.

GENDER GAP

Regarding areas of specialization, work location, job security, rank, compensation, job satisfaction, and career development, there is still a “gender gap” among professionals.[5] Women are underrepresented in engineering (19.3%), computer science (18.7%), and physical sciences (19.3%).[6] Gender discrepancies continue to increase in academic professions, even reaching undergraduate subjects such as biological sciences, where women are expected to predominate.[7] According to a Business Standard Report poll, women make up only 25% of the labor force in India. The primary cause of this gender disparity in the workplace and society is gender inequality.[8] The gender gap in paid work participation is partly a product of unpaid labor responsibilities: many women must take extended leaves of absence from paid employment to care for family members. As a result, many women have no income at all for extended periods, making the gender disparity in lifetime earnings much larger than the wage discrepancy between employed women and men.[9]

WAGE GAP

Women’s salaries in developing regions, such as South Asian regions or Sub-Saharan Africa, average roughly half of men’s incomes when occupational disparities are considered. In developed nations, however, this gender wage gap decreases significantly but does not entirely disappear. In North America, for instance, women’s incomes average 63% of men’s.[10] Women continue to be overrepresented in unskilled and unpaid employment, belong to lower cadres of health professionals,[11] are underrepresented in leadership roles,[12] and earn less than males[12] despite some changes in the gender balance of the health workforce. A 2019 study analyzed data from 25 countries over 9 years to examine the gender pay gap in various occupations and healthcare. The findings indicated that women in the general sector were paid 24–35% less than men, and in the health workforce, they were paid 26–36% less. Associative and supportive occupations in lower-middle-income countries showed the largest disparities in female compensation; a gender-based wage gap was evident in all countries and occupational categories.[13] Three major categories can be used to categorize the explanations for the gaps. First, disparate tastes between men and women may influence how they behave or what they choose to do for a living.[14] Second, because of social norms, household and family responsibilities, or other factors, women may have more restrictions on their ability to choose their careers or be flexible.[15] Third, the disparities could potentially be the result of overt discrimination.[16]

Research from developing nations is far more limited, primarily due to the lack of reliable data from developing nations. However, we might anticipate that gender wage disparities will be just as common in underdeveloped nations. Norms, desires, and expectations are only a few of the associated potential drivers that are much more prominent in many developing nations.[17] According to a Bangladeshi study, women’s pay in the garment sector is 20% less than men’s, and even among specifically defined manufacturing workers, the gap is 8%. About half of the wage discrepancy can be attributed to men’s longer tenure in the industry; the remaining half is mainly attributable to variations in internal and cross-factory promotion rates.[18] One of the leading causes of the wage gap’s stagnant progress is that women continue to bear a disproportionate amount of unpaid care and domestic work in families and communities, including caring for children, the elderly and frail, the sick, and those with disabilities. Women also tend to people’s daily needs and provide more care than men. Mothers who have dependent children typically earn less than women without dependent children and less than males who have comparable home and employment characteristics across the globe.[19]

HIGHER EDUCATION AND WORK–LIFE BALANCE

Fortunately, women’s rights are now on par with men’s in this period of increased technology. Higher education has enabled more women to become enlightened, thanks to the rapid development of the economy.[20] Work and family difficulties are a relatively new topic of discussion in Asian societies.[21] In contrast, an increasing number of Southeast Asian nations are realizing the importance of women to their advancement on the economic and social fronts.[22] Many people, mainly working women worldwide, prioritize balancing their personal and professional lives.[23] Working women who marry have more obligations, and after starting a family, they have pressure to uphold an extended oath while managing primary care for their children and extended family.[24] Studies on time exploitation have revealed that married women engage in several roles for a significant portion of their lives. Furthermore, according to the role theory, playing several roles might cause inter-role conflict, resulting in strain-related symptoms.[25] Moms are also judged more harshly than their male counterparts. Women are viewed as less trustworthy, less promotable, and deserving of lower starting salaries—especially mothers.[26] The literature in India acknowledges the existence of the “glass ceiling” in many organizations. It has been proposed that because Indian society places a high value on traditions, Indian women are limited to taking care of their families and households and are constantly faced with obstacles when it comes to advancing their careers.[27] Additionally, because they must overcome obstacles such as cultural shifts, harassment, gender discrimination, acceptance of lifestyle choices, and a male-dominated society, women focus more on household responsibilities, such as caring for their husbands, children, and in-laws, than on advancing their careers.[27]

SLOW CAREER TRAJECTORY/LESS LEADERSHIP ROLES

Women typically hold lower-cadre leadership positions and work at lower levels than men. Senior management levels are where women are not adequately represented in the labor force.[28]

Some researchers have promoted the idea that women cannot progress to senior management positions because of an undetectable and strong ceiling known as the “glass ceiling.”[29]

The term “glass ceiling“ refers to the idea that women have less employment prospects than men, particularly when advancing in their careers. As a result, this phenomenon is described as a “glass“ because the limits to upward mobility are apparent and as a “ceiling” because such restrictions exist.[30,31]

Artificial and natural barriers are the two categories into which glass ceiling barriers fall.

One might gain insight into the former by comparing artificial barriers, such as societal, organizational, and personal—with natural barriers—such as educational attainment or career breaks—that significantly impede women’s advancement in the workforce.[32]

Although many women have achieved managerial positions, only a small proportion have been able to advance to senior management roles, with women making up only one in four senior executive officers.[33]

In a nationally representative research of South Korea, 58.2% of working women and 5.2% of males reported experiencing gender discrimination in terms of salary, and 79.3% of women and 3.9% of men, respectively, reported experiencing gender discrimination in terms of promotion chances.[34]

Moreover, even though there are now more women than ever receiving doctorates in STEM, the proportion of women holding academic posts in STEM has remained the same.[35] According to recent evidence, more factors may contribute to this underrepresentation than talent. For example, biases favoring men may be to blame for the negative experiences women have in STEM professions.[36]

Usually, male faculty members find establishing networks with their research partners simpler. As a result, they are more likely to obtain tenure, be promoted to leadership roles, and have greater awareness of research funding opportunities.[37]

Decreased social capital also adversely affects interactions with direct superiors and coworkers, making women faculty feel more socially isolated and making it harder for them to integrate into their STEM fields.[38]

A 2011 study found that women were overrepresented in lesser positions and that they stagnated in such roles as a result of discrimination and pay inequality and were forced to pursue only conventional career paths. The study also discovered that women’s roles in society were impacted by cultural expectations, which made them decline upper management jobs.[39]

One study supported the idea that companies did not hire women at the highest levels. They were worried that these executives would be unable to dedicate themselves fully to the work because they were seen as less capable due to their gender and because social and biological factors would hinder their ability to advance within the company.[40]

GENDER STEREOTYPES/BIAS/DISCRIMINATION

Gender discrimination has been linked to several health issues and harmful habits, such as drinking and smoking cigarettes, stress, social anxiety, and depression, among others.[41,42] Some myths that attribute particular skills to women for caring for children and at home perpetuate gender stereotypes and lead to greater overt gender inequality in the workplace.[43]

Women’s decision to put off or give up having children has been connected to a broader worry about employers discriminating against new mothers, expecting mothers, and women with young children.[34] For instance, working women in Poland cannot give birth unless a grandmother is willing and able to take care of the children.[44] Highly educated professional women in Japan are unwilling to shoulder the gendered burden of marriage due to the established gendered path of quitting a career in marriage and motherhood, as well as the dearth of female role models in the workplace.[45] In Korea, working women are less likely than unemployed women to give birth to a second child,[46] mainly if their status in the labor market is low.

However, discrimination can take many other significant forms, such as dismissal, harassment, and unfair promotion and demotion practices. These forms are more common in official discrimination cases and typically occur after hiring.[47]

SEXUAL HARASSMENT/ADVANCES AT WORKPLACE

Workplace sexual harassment, or SHWP, is quite common and has a detrimental effect on victims, including depression. It also hurts the economy because of absenteeism and low productivity.[48]

Nearly 23% of women between the ages of 16 and 30 years report having experienced sexual harassment at work, yet only 8% of them report it, according to Young Women’s Trust. Some excuses for not reporting include the fear of losing one’s job, receiving a reduction in hours worked, or not knowing where to find the appropriate channels for filing and handling sexual harassment charges.[49]

Another survey found that 52% of young women said they experienced mental health problems as a result of sexual harassment and gender discrimination at work. According to the same survey, 42% of young males said their workplace mental health issues were caused by sexual discrimination. More often than males, women experience gender discrimination at work, and the effects are more severe.[50]

The prevalence of sexual harassment at work is a significant problem; estimates range from 20% to 50% in high-income nations and from 14.5% to 98.8% in surveys conducted in low- and middle-income nations.[51]

SHWP severely harms the welfare of sufferers. Feelings of annoyance, rage, fear, shame, and tension are among the consequences. Moreover, it may cause employees to lose out on professional possibilities or quit. Depression is a significant outcome that may be of utmost importance. Individuals who have had SHWP are more likely to have depression and anxiety than those who have not.[52,53]

Men are more likely than women to engage in sexual harassment. For example, a recent extensive study of federal employees found that in 82% of the cases that had the most significant effect on the victims, the harasser was a man.[54]

Specific somatic symptoms, such as headaches, fatigue, sleep issues, gastrointestinal issues, nausea, respiratory complaints, musculoskeletal discomfort, and weight loss or gain, have been linked in other research to experiences of sexual harassment.[55]

Almost half of the women academic medical staff in the United States reported having encountered intimidation, threats of coercion, bribery, sexist remarks, and sexual approaches. Women are further stigmatized and discouraged from speaking out when sexual harassment is minimized, and the misconception that it occurs infrequently is maintained.[56]

GENDER DISCRIMINATION IN MEDICINE

Within the medical field, these disparities materialize for women as daily encounters with sexism. These experiences include being subjected to sexist jokes in the classroom, experiencing sexual harassment from clinicians, faculty, or patients, receiving weaker recommendation letters than males for faculty applications to medical schools, earning less than males, entering lower-paying specialties such as family practice, and having a lower chance of being addressed by one’s professional title than males.[57]

Although there has been a rise in gender diversity, the real progress toward enhancing women’s sense of inclusion and belonging is severely behind.

Female physicians frequently receive less respect and are mistakenly believed to be nurses.[58]

Even though more women are enrolling in surgery and surgery-based residency and are predicted to make up half of all trainees in general surgery by 2026, assessment of higher levels of academic leadership indicates that parity at the professor level will not be realized for another 100 years (2096–2136).[59]

MENTAL HEALTH IMPACT

Studies show a link between poorer mental health, including sleep difficulties, depression, anxiety, signs of post-traumatic stress disorder, psychological distress, and workplace abuse and stress.[60]

For flight attendants and flight logistics personnel, exposure to professional stress is linked to an elevated risk of cardiovascular disease as well as musculoskeletal injuries and illnesses.[61]

Harassment can harm organizations because it hurts employee morale, productivity, absenteeism, turnover, organizational commitment, and the employer’s external reputation.[62]

Furthermore, WHO research on gender and mental diseases found that psychological health issues are more common in women. A significant determinant of mental health and mental disorders is gender. Gender determines differences in the degree of power and control over socioeconomic variables, such as social status, treatment, and status. Their control and power thus determine their exposure to and vulnerability to specific mental health hazards. Women are more vulnerable to mental health problems as a result of gender discrimination at work because they have less authority and control over the causes above. Common mental illnesses, including anxiety, depression, and physical ailments, are significant health issues.[63]

According to a Korean study, women who encounter gender discrimination at work, regardless of the form of discrimination—such as hiring, promotion, job assignments, paid earnings, or firing—are more likely to have depressive symptoms.

The women had low levels of involvement at work, as evidenced by resource allocation, unfair treatment, high rates of work-related conflict, low self-esteem, heightened anxiety and depression, and low job status.[64]

NAVIGATING THROUGH THE ISSUES

Recognizing, reducing, and redistributing women’s unpaid labor have proven effective strategies in high-income nations with robust welfare states. These strategies are also being implemented in many developing nations that have implemented some of the International Labour Organization’s recommended social protection laws.[65]

It is possible to adapt SHWP zero-tolerance policies and training to various workplace types, with some policy elements possibly having a more significant impact.[66,67]

Supporting women faculty members during their child-rearing years is one method that enables them to pursue research as a career. Flexible work arrangements include flexibility over work schedules, time set aside for research to create and organize plans, and encouraging and transparent regulations regarding parental and caregiver leave.[68]

There should be measures to increase the number of women in the workforce. It has been demonstrated that a range of levers for budgetary, legal, regulatory, and institutional policy increase the involvement of women in the labor force. Policies should work to eliminate obstacles and increase opportunities even when there is not a single, universally applicable solution. Particularly effective are the laws and facilities that facilitate women’s ability to balance work and family obligations.

Encourage female entrepreneurs by expanding their financial options. Compared to men, women frequently deal with tighter collateral requirements, shorter loan terms, and higher interest rates. The disparity in borrowing rates between men and women has decreased because of programs such as Chile’s streamlined deposit accounts and Malaysia’s Women Entrepreneur Financing Program.

Encourage equal rights for women. Among the measures are those that deal with property rights and inheritance legislation. To lessen gender discrimination, Malawi, Namibia, and Peru updated their legislative systems; as a result, female labor force participation rates significantly rose in each of the three nations during the ensuing 10 years.

Encourage easy access to reasonably priced, first-rate child care. Japan is one example, where benefits for childcare leave were increased from 50% to 67% of salary. According to research, there could be a 10% increase in young mothers employed if daycare costs were halved.

It has also been discovered that tax relief programs for low-income households raise women’s employment rates. The rationale is that tax relief lowers women’s after-tax income and lessens their tax burden, improving their motivation to enter or stay in the labor field. This has been demonstrated by earned income tax credits in countries such as the UK, the US, Belgium, and Germany.

Gender parity in health and education spending is essential to guaranteeing women’s access to high-quality jobs. Based on data from the international monetary fund (IMF), for instance, if Indian states increased their education spending by one percent of GDP, there would be a two percentage point rise in female labor force participation. Early skill development would also better position women to take advantage of new job opportunities and safeguard themselves against technological displacement. There are still discernible gender disparities in terms of who has access to digital technology that opens up new work opportunities: Men outnumber women online by a margin of 250 million, yet 60% of people globally—primarily women in poor and emerging economies—do not have access to the internet. One notable example of a comprehensive approach to bridge the gender digital divide is Finland’s efforts to provide universal access to broadband connectivity, digital education for all, and digital access to business and government services.[69]

CONCLUSION

Even in the 21^st century, with continuous progress, specific issues plague working women. These may include the gender pay gap, discrimination, harassment, difficulty in work–life balance, and the mental health impact due to these prevalent issues. Several measures can be taken to reduce these, such as generating better workplace policies, increased safety measures, workplace diversity in hiring, paid maternity leaves and better child care, increased opportunity for female participation, and more government education funding for women. Gradually, better policies can be implemented to reduce the gender gap and discrimination.

Authors contributions

Concept and design of paper: JP, SD, SC. Drafting the article and revising it critically for important intellectual content: SD, SC. Final editing and approval of the version to be published: JP, SD, SC.