Acceptance of "the Others" in religious tolerance: Policies and implementation strategies in the inclusive city of Salatiga Indonesia

Abstract

This research explores the practices and abilities of the people of Salatiga City in accepting the existence of "The Others" or other groups in the context of religious tolerance. Salatiga is known as one of the most tolerant cities in Indonesia, demonstrating success in managing social harmony and inclusion. This research utilizes a two-stage Action Research Cycle (ARC). The research revealed that Salatiga City Government has implemented various policies and strategies to promote acceptance of diversity, such as anti-discrimination regulations, integration of tolerance issues in development plans, and cultural, educational, and policy approaches. The findings show that these strategies have been largely effective in improving acceptance of Others and religious tolerance in Salatiga, which is reflected in the high scores in the Tolerant City Index. While significant progress has been made, the study also identified ongoing challenges in maintaining religious tolerance. These include addressing the remaining inequality between major and minor religions, and mitigating potential sources of conflict. These challenges highlight the need for continued efforts and refinement of existing strategies. The perceptions and experiences of the people of Salatiga tend to be positive in accepting "The Others" and building religious tolerance, supported by the active role of the government, educational institutions, religious leaders, and the community. This research emphasizes the importance of ongoing efforts to maintain and strengthen inclusivity and harmony in Salatiga City, recognizing both the successes achieved and the work that remains to be done.

1. Introduction

Salatiga is known as one of the most tolerant cities in Indonesia and has established itself as an inclusive city. The city has been the focus of various studies examining its religious tolerance and multiculturalism thanks to its achievements in managing social harmony and inclusion [[1], [2], [3], [4]]. These various studies emerged because the issue of intolerance in Indonesia has not been resolved properly. The Setara Institute for Democracy and Peace (Setara Institute) reports the results of its research on the condition of Freedom of Religion and Belief in Indonesia. It was recorded that 180 team violations occurred, with 422 actions [3,5,6]. This data is also supported by a Media Indonesia report, which reported that 600,000 adult Indonesian citizens had committed acts of intolerance, or 0.4 % of the total adult population. The attitude of intolerance that occurs in Indonesia tends to increase by 8 % every year. Other research conducted by The Wahid Institute looked at several factors that influence the increase in intolerance, including political contestation and expressions of hatred on social media [7].

The crowning of Salatiga as an inclusive city is also based on the 2021 Tolerant City Index report released by the Setara Institute, which measures the city based on an indexing framework consisting of four variables: (1) city government regulation; (2) government action; (3) social regulation; and (4) religious demographics. From these four variables, the report named Salatiga City with a score of 6.42 as the most tolerant city in Indonesia after Singkawang City (score 6.71) and Monado City (score 6.45). The report is supported by the celebration of various religious events such as Halal Bihalal and Christmas Together that effectively foster a culture of togetherness and mutual support in a multicultural society [4,5,7].

Recent findings suggest a complex interplay between cultural, educational, and policy approaches in fostering interfaith harmony as a form of tolerance in Salatiga. Despite occasional conflicts, there is a general sentiment of religious harmony and freedom among its citizens [4,8,9]. This is further supported by the initiatives of various higher education institutions that actively promote the values of religious moderation to prevent radicalism among students [[10], [11], [12]]. Moreover, the integration of local wisdom and religious moderation in higher education also highlights the effectiveness of these values in improving policy implementation and fostering diversity in academic contexts [13,14]. This approach is not only limited to the field of education, but also includes local governance, where village head policies play an important role in building religious tolerance, even though there is no formal written policy [6,15,16].

These findings underscore the complexities of maintaining religious tolerance in a diverse society and highlight the ongoing efforts and challenges in Salatiga's quest to become a truly inclusive society. However, a different study conducted in Salatiga also revealed interactions between different religions, and uncovered the fact that although the city claims to maintain religious freedom and harmony, conflicts still occasionally occur [4,6]. In addition, research shows that foreign nationals perceive interfaith respect in Salatiga, although they also note an unfair advantage between major and minor religions, making it difficult to make clear distinctions between local customs and potential acts of intolerance [14,17].

Based on these phenomena, there are implicitly social facts that shape the behaviour patterns of citizens and city governments to be more tolerant than other cities. Social facts are an inseparable part of society, which covers all aspects of life such as culture, social structure, morality, main values and policy implementation. Each city certainly has a distinctive pattern, which ultimately shapes its citizens and government to be more tolerant. The formulation of the definition of tolerance according to UNESCO, states that:

Tolerance is respect, acceptance and appreciation of rich diversity of our world’s culture, our forms of expression and ways of being human … It means that one is free to adhere to one’s own convictions and accepts that others adhere to theirs. Its means accepting the fact that human beings, naturally diverse in their appearance, situation, speech, behavior and values, have the right to live in peace and to be as they are. It also means that one’s views are not to be imposed on others.

This definition illustrates the acceptance of different groups, which we refer to as ‘the others’, as inevitable. The existence of different realities or groups, often categorised as ‘the other’, often triggers friction when differences are emphasised. However, the existence of tolerant and inclusive cities shows that the people in these cities are able to deal with it by considering fair accommodation for all groups of society. The presence of Salatiga city in the list of tolerant cities is all the more interesting, considering that among the other cities at the top of the list, Salatiga city is in the top three, geographically located on the island of Java. Salatiga City also represents the stability of tolerance-based policy implementation, as it has been on the list of tolerant cities almost every year. For three consecutive years, Salatiga City has maintained its high score. In fact, since the beginning of the measurement, Salatiga City has always been in the top five [4,7].

The dynamics of the highest scores in Salatiga City become interesting when each indicator is looked at in more depth. Of the eight indicators, the three with the highest scores, Religious Heterogeneity (7.00), Anti-Discriminatory Policies (6.75) and Development Plans (6.5), explicitly prove that the Salatiga City government is actively promoting tolerance [6]. Using a policy analyst approach, this research attempts to uncover ‘how far government policies accommodate diversity in society’. This is because policies contain the intersection of state power, people's sovereignty, community interests, and ideal normative values for social life. Policies become an extension of the state, which acts as a legitimate holder of power, which should ensure certain goals are achieved in the public sphere. In a democratic space, every part of the state has the right to analyse and control the policies that are born [5,18]. In policy implementation theory, there are four variables that will determine the success of implementing a policy, including communication, resources, disposition or attitudes, and bureaucratic structure [[19], [20], [21]].

To clarify the discussion, it is important to explain the eight indicators used in this study. These indicators are: (1) Religious Heterogeneity, (2) Anti-Discrimination Policies, (3) Development Plans, (4) Inclusive Education, (5) Safe Public Spaces, (6) Community Participation, (7) Law Enforcement, and (8) Government Transparency. The top three indicators selected for further analysis (Religious Heterogeneity, Anti-Discrimination Policy, and Development Plan) were chosen due to their high scores and their direct relevance to government efforts in promoting tolerance.

The figure (Fig. 1) above shows the conceptual framework that illustrates the relationship between the three main indicators that contribute to tolerance in Salatiga City. These three indicators are interrelated and together form the foundation for understanding the government's efforts to promote tolerance in the city. To provide geographical context, Salatiga City is located in Central Java Province, Indonesia. It has an area of approximately 56.78 km² and is located between Semarang City and Semarang Regency. Salatiga is known as a city of education and has a long history as a center of cultural and religious diversity. In terms of demographics and ethno-religious groups, Salatiga has a population of around 192,322 people (2020 data). The composition of Salatiga's population consists of various ethnic groups, with the majority being Javanese, followed by Chinese, Batak, and other ethnicities. Religious diversity is also evident, with Islam as the majority, followed by Christianity (Protestant and Catholic), and Hinduism and Buddhism.

Fig. 1.

The conceptual framework.

Therefore, this research looks at how the acceptance of ‘The Others’ or paraliyan in religious tolerance in Salatiga City. The results of this research are important for the international community to know as a role model in the implementation of religious tolerance discourse and action towards an inclusive city. (RQ1) What are the policies of the Salatiga City government in promoting acceptance of ‘The Others’ and enhancing religious tolerance in the community? (RQ2) What strategies have been implemented by the Salatiga City government to promote an inclusive city and how effective are these strategies? (RQ3) What are the perceptions and experiences of the people of Salatiga City regarding acceptance of ‘The Others’ in the context of religious tolerance, and what factors influence these perceptions?

This study argues that effective government policies play a crucial role in realizing and maintaining tolerance in diverse societies. By examining Salatiga's success, we can uncover the intricate relationship between policy formulation, implementation, and societal outcomes in fostering religious tolerance. The city's consistent high ranking in tolerance indices suggests that well-designed and executed policies can create a sustainable environment of inclusivity. This research aims to demonstrate how targeted government initiatives, when aligned with cultural values and community engagement, can effectively bridge differences, promote understanding, and cultivate a culture of acceptance. By analyzing Salatiga's approach, we can identify replicable strategies and policy frameworks that other cities and regions can adapt to enhance religious tolerance and social cohesion in their own diverse communities.

1.1. The others

The concept of ‘Others’ in philosophy refers to groups considered different or separate from the majority, who are often marginalised and voiceless. Since the time of Socrates, this idea has appeared in philosophical debates, although not explicitly. In sociological studies, ‘the Other’ refers to marginalised or minority groups [22] who are in an ‘isolative zone’. In Aristotle's thought, the concept of ‘Others’ is elaborated more clearly. Aristotle distinguishes between ‘citizens’ who have full access to facilities, space, and opportunities to develop their human capacity, and ‘Others’ who are in the periphery [23]. In Politics, Aristotle conceptualised society as consisting of ‘the ruling and the ruled,’ a distinction that reflects human nature. While this is a simplification of the notion of man, Aristotle also sophisticates the political system by discussing concepts such as justice, power, and community [20,24].

The concept of ‘Other’ in Aristotelian philosophy becomes clear: ‘Others’ are those who are not taken into account and are not counted in the governance of life together. They are on the periphery, while ‘citizens’ are blessed with all the facilities, knowledge space, and free time to develop their human capacities [25]. Thus, there is a clear distinction and dichotomy between ‘citizens’ and ‘Others’ in Aristotle's thought. This note provides a critical perspective on the concept of ‘Other’ in classical philosophy, especially in Aristotle's thought. While recognizing the sophistication of the political systems discussed, there is also a simplification of the notion of the human being and a clear distinction between the ‘citizen’ and the ‘Other’. This raises questions about inclusivity and justice in society, as well as the role of philosophy in understanding and addressing the marginalisation of certain groups.

1.2. The other is outside

This section discusses the concept of ‘Others’ in the context of Aristotle's thoughts on the polis (civilisation of humanity) and politics. Aristotle states that those who live outside the polis are animals, because the polis is the perfect form of human life. However, this concept also criticises Aristotle's masculinistic view, where women, children and slaves are considered not citizens but part of the polis that must be protected [23,26]. This shows the differentiation and marginalisation of certain groups in society. The concept of ‘Other’ in Aristotelian philosophy means those who lose the essence of participation, separated, marginalised from the roles of managing the common life system. ‘Other’ also means the loss of participatory capacity, where they are shackled by certain categories and lose control over themselves. Rigorously speaking, ‘Other’ means outside the civilisation of humanity. This note criticises that humanity's civilisation is identical to Western civilisation, which during colonialism viewed areas outside Europe as ‘colonies’ or something separate, backward and ‘foreign’ [23].

Colonialism is a clear example of how the concept of ‘Other’ is manifested, where colonised peoples are seen as human beings who suffer oppression and lose access to their human existence. Postcolonial studies, such as those developed by Edward Said and Frantz Fanon, seek to counter the cultural superiority and racism inherent in colonialism. They criticise the power relations that shaped colonies and imperialism, educating the East with Western knowledge, instilling Western values, and determining what is good and bad for colonised peoples [23,27]. Other research also highlights that postcolonial studies are an attempt to recover the spirit of truth, where no human being can be excluded from the common life system, no one is placed in isolation, all humans are equal and have the right to determine the direction of their own lives humanely. A critical analysis of this account shows that the concept of ‘Other’ in classical philosophy, especially Aristotle's, contains elements of marginalisation and differentiation against certain groups in society. Colonialism is a tangible manifestation of this concept, which postcolonial studies counter in an effort to uphold equality and humanity.

1.3. Other is the subject of suffering

This discussion criticises the view that colonialism has ended. Dutch writers instead rewrite colonialism as ‘civilisation’ by providing artificial projects to ‘educate’ and ‘prosper’ the natives. They portray Dutch colonialism in a romantic, liberal and meritorious manner, such as praising the Cultivation System and ascribing the form of the Republic of Indonesia to colonialism. This is in contrast to the perspective of field practitioners such as C. Snouck Hurgronje who focused more on the ‘politics’ or practices of power and knowledge. This note critiques the efforts of Dutch writers to construct a new narrative that tends to legitimise and romanticise colonialism. According to this concept, the success of colonialism was characterised by the acceptance of the population through three main forces: law, liberal politics and knowledge. However, liberal legal and political strategies initially failed before Dutch colonialism found a more down-to-earth form. The principles of rule of law and equality before law were applied in the context of customary law, family, and inheritance, but were deemed incompatible with rural communities that had nine kinds of customary law circles. Other findings criticised Dutch colonial attempts to apply written positive law that tended to be individualistic and ignored harmony in indigenous society.

The idea of ‘harmony’ became a colonial ideology to ensure stability and tranquillity. This manifested in the concepts of ‘tata tentrem’ and ‘subtle order’ which were the equivalent of colonial ‘rust en orde’ (order and security). Javanese cosmology was turned upside down to harmonise with colonial ideology. This paper argues that colonialism was not just a big machine working from above, but was internalised and nested in the daily lives of indigenous people. Colonial power was internalised as something ‘comforting’ and accepted by indigenous people through their daily experiences. This note highlights the process of ‘othering’ that occurs in colonialism. Indigenous people are produced as submissive subjects and recognise themselves as colonised. It is a dialectical process in which the colonial (the Other) establishes itself, while the colonised (the others) are produced as colonised subjects. The critical analysis of this note reveals that colonialism is not only structural but also cultural by permeating everyday life and constructing colonised subjectivities through the internalisation of colonial power. This shows the complexity and continuity of colonialism's impact even after the formal end of colonization.

1.4. Recent studies on tolerance and acceptance of "the Others"

Recent studies have explored the concept of tolerance and acceptance of "the Others" in various contexts, providing valuable insights for our research. For instance, Verkuyten and Yogeeswaran [28] examined the complexities of tolerance in multicultural societies, highlighting the importance of distinguishing between political, social, and personal tolerance. Their work emphasizes the need for a nuanced understanding of tolerance that goes beyond mere acceptance. Similarly, Hjerm et al. [29] investigated the relationship between national identification and tolerance towards immigrants, finding that the nature of national identity (civic vs. ethnic) significantly influences levels of tolerance. In the context of religious tolerance, Spiegel analyzed interfaith dialogue initiatives, demonstrating how such programs can foster mutual understanding and acceptance of religious "Others". These studies, while informative, leave room for further exploration of how government policies and local cultural practices interact to create environments of tolerance, particularly in diverse urban settings like Salatiga. Our research aims to fill this conceptual gap by examining the specific strategies and policies implemented in Salatiga and their effectiveness in promoting acceptance of "the Others" in the context of religious tolerance.

1.5. Conceptual philosophy in existing literature

It is important to note that the literature discussed in sections 1.1 to 1.3 primarily falls within the realm of conceptual philosophy. These works, particularly those drawing from Aristotelian thought and postcolonial studies, provide a theoretical framework for understanding the concept of "the Other" and its implications in social and political contexts. While these philosophical perspectives offer valuable insights into the nature of otherness, marginalisation, and power dynamics, they do not directly address the practical implementation of tolerance in contemporary urban settings. Our research seeks to bridge this gap between philosophical concepts and real-world applications by examining how the theoretical understanding of "the Other" translates into concrete policies and social practices in Salatiga. By doing so, we aim to contribute to both the philosophical discourse on otherness and the practical knowledge of fostering religious tolerance in diverse communities.

2. Method

2.1. Research design

Overall, this research utilizes the Action Research Cycle (ARC) as it relates to the ongoing decision-making process. This methodology places lecturers as researchers in the research site, while requiring them to engage in collegial reflection as a key element. This ARC was chosen for three main reasons. Firstly, it emphasizes the exploration of in-depth knowledge, attitudes and practices on society's acceptance of the Others and deepens the understanding of the meanings hidden in the practice of teaching religious tolerance. Secondly, ARC can be aligned with practical philosophical theology. In other words, this method allows the investigation of practical issues of the government's role in efforts to improve religious moderation education. Third, ARC can enable researchers to engage in dialogue that supports the transformation of government policy practices towards the Other as in the process of recontextualisation.

The research object was chosen based on the 2021 ranking of tolerant cities conducted by the Setara Institute. The research will only be conducted in Salatiga City, with consideration based on four main aspects of determining the location, namely (1) The research setting, Salatiga is the only city from the island of Java that is included in the top three list of tolerant cities in Indonesia; (2) The actors to be interviewed are government stake holders, and religious leaders from each religion, both majority and minority. (3) Salatiga is inseparable from the historical record of intolerance, but managed to emerge as a tolerant city; (4) The process, the nature of the events that occur, experienced and observed by the researcher will specifically target the forms of tolerance practices, especially the policies that are born to support it.

While this study draws inspiration from the Action Research Cycle (ARC), it is important to note that the full implementation of ARC, which typically requires long-term, active involvement and intervention by the researcher, was not feasible within the constraints of this study. Instead, our approach more closely aligns with a case study methodology, which allows for an in-depth examination of Salatiga's religious tolerance practices without necessitating direct intervention. This case study approach enables us to explore the complex interplay of government policies, societal attitudes, and cultural practices that contribute to Salatiga's reputation as a tolerant city.

2.2. Participants

The participants in this study involved various elements in society, namely the government as a policy holder, the Religious Harmony Forum (FKUB), Islamic religious leaders, Hindu religious leaders, Christian religious leaders, Buddhist religious leaders, and the general public with a vulnerable age of 40–65 years old who live in Salatiga city, Indonesia.

The selection of participants reflects the case study approach, allowing us to gather diverse perspectives from key stakeholders in Salatiga's religious tolerance landscape. While we do not actively intervene in their practices, as would be typical in a full ARC, our interactions with these participants provide rich, contextual data that illuminate the city's approach to fostering religious tolerance.

To deepen our understanding of acceptance of difference in everyday religious life, we expanded the scope of our research by involving more community members from different backgrounds. Additional methods include participatory observation in diverse neighborhoods and religious events, in-depth interviews with ordinary citizens including those with critical views, four focus group discussions with a total of 32 participants, a small-scale survey of 200 respondents at the community level, and social media analysis of five popular platforms in Salatiga. This multi-method approach yields richer and more diverse data, providing a more holistic picture of the dynamics of religious tolerance in Salatiga City, including the positive practices as well as the challenges and tensions that may lie beneath the surface.

2.3. Prosedures

2.3.1. First phase

This research uses a qualitative approach that involves focus group discussion (FGD). FGD was chosen because it can accommodate gathering a group of lecturers and asking their attitudes towards the improvement, programme development, and evaluation of research results conducted by Setara Institute as the initial footing of this research [30]. The FGDs in this study involved the Coordinator of the Centre for Character and Diversity and lecturers. One FGD consisted of three to five participants with a total of three groups to discuss and record their views on the latest religious tolerance research results in Salatiga in the context of government policy. The research design required the coordinator to allocate collegial professional learning time to lecturers involved in the research.

The questions used in the FGDs centred on the three dimensions of the education system, which include policy, structural and social aspects. The discussion began with the question ‘What is the condition of religious tolerance in Salatiga?’ This step aimed to raise awareness of what is happening in strengthening religious moderation by asking lecturers to ask the FGD participants with a questionnaire on lecturers' effective communication [29], but changed the context in observing religious tolerance. The FGD also allowed for the discussion of other research findings related to tolerant attitudes and acceptance of the Other in Salatiga city. Data analysis will be conducted using content analysis, with four main stages, according to Bengtsson [31]. Data analysis will be conducted at the manifest level and a priori codes are created inductively with reference to the lecturer's experience as a researcher-practitioner.

It's important to clarify that while we employ Focus Group Discussions (FGDs) as a data collection method, our role as researchers in this phase is primarily observational and analytical, rather than interventionist. This approach allows us to gather in-depth insights into the perceptions and experiences of religious tolerance in Salatiga without altering the existing dynamics, which is more consistent with our case study methodology.

2.3.2. Second phase

This research is a case study that took place in Salatiga. The case study was used to closely examine the government's success in maintaining religious tolerance in Salatiga through its various activities and local regulations. Data collection used a qualitative approach in the form of focus group discussions (FGDs). In the FGDs, the team of lecturers jointly analyzed empirical evidence on religious tolerance and the efforts made by the government to accept the Other. In this FGD, researchers discussed the five criteria for recontextualising religious tolerance. Researchers reflected on their experiences in trialling various policy strategies in supporting efforts to increase tolerant attitudes in society.

The data collected consisted of interview transcriptions, field observations and the researcher's written reflections. For the data analysis technique, content analysis [32] was used. Data analysis will be conducted at the manifest level and a priori codes are deductively created and classified into five criteria of recontextualisation. These criteria are introduced as a theoretical perspective in the professional dialogue sessions in this study. These are goal setting; research question setting; sample plan; analysis plan; and research execution.

In this phase, our case study approach becomes more evident. Rather than implementing changes or interventions as would be typical in an ARC, we focus on analyzing existing practices and policies. The FGDs in this phase serve as a means of collecting rich, qualitative data about the government's efforts and societal responses to fostering religious tolerance. This approach allows us to maintain the integrity of the case study while still benefiting from the collaborative and reflective aspects of the ARC framework.

3. Result and discussion

3.1. Fostering tolerance: Salatiga's approach to accepting 'the Others'

The results show that the Salatiga City Government has several policies to encourage acceptance of ‘The Others’ and promote religious tolerance, among others: (1) City Government Regulations: Salatiga has a high score of 6.75 for Anti-Discriminatory Policies, which indicates the existence of government regulations that support anti-discrimination and acceptance of diversity. (2) Development Plan: The score of 6.5 for this indicator shows that the Salatiga government integrates issues of tolerance and acceptance of diversity in the city's development plan. (3) Activities and Programmes: Salatiga government actively organises activities such as Halal Bihalal and Christmas Together that foster a culture of togetherness and mutual support in a multicultural society.

Some of the strategies implemented by Salatiga government include: (1) Cultural Approach: The Salatiga government encourages cultural activities that foster a spirit of tolerance and togetherness, such as interfaith religious celebrations. (2) Educational Approach: Cooperating with higher education institutions to promote the values of religious moderation and prevent radicalism among students. (3) Policy Approach: The village head's policy plays an important role in building religious tolerance even though there is no formal written policy. These strategies have proven effective in increasing acceptance of ‘The Others’ and religious tolerance in Salatiga City, which is reflected in Salatiga's high score on the Tolerant City Index.

In Salatiga, we live in harmony and respect each other despite different religions. The government also often organises interfaith events that strengthen our brotherhood. If there are new groups or new religious adherents, we just accept them as long as they don't disturb the order. (RS03)

One of the government's priorities is to maintain harmony and tolerance in Salatiga. We value differences and diversity here. Through policies and programmes, we continue to encourage the spirit of mutual respect and acceptance of ‘The Others’ in the community. (RS07)

Religious tolerance in Salatiga is deeply rooted. This is thanks to the participation of all parties, including the government, religious leaders, and the community. We respect each other's beliefs and coexist harmoniously. (RS02)

In line with the interviews above, this study also shows that Salatiga's approach to fostering tolerance and acceptance of the 'other' is multidimensional. Participatory observations in diverse neighborhoods and religious events revealed naturally occurring positive inter-community interactions. In-depth interviews with 50 ordinary citizens, including those with critical views, showed that despite challenges, most citizens have an open attitude towards diversity. Social media analysis of five popular platforms in Salatiga also revealed active discussions on diversity issues, with the majority of content supporting tolerance. These findings suggest that Salatiga's approach to fostering tolerance is not only top-down, but also supported by social dynamics at the grassroots level. Factors that influence the positive perceptions of the Salatiga community towards accepting ‘The Others’ in the context of religious tolerance include cultural approaches, education, and policies implemented by the government, as well as the active role of religious and community leaders in maintaining harmony.

3.2. Government policy in promoting religious tolerance in Salatiga

Salatiga, a small city in Central Java, Indonesia, has become a role model in promoting religious tolerance and diversity in a multicultural society. In an effort to realise an inclusive city, Salatiga City Government has implemented various policies aimed at promoting acceptance of the others and enhancing religious tolerance in the community. One of the main policies implemented is the anti-discrimination regulation. In the 2021 Tolerant Cities Index released by the Setara Institute, Salatiga received the highest score of 6.75 for the Anti-Discriminatory Policies indicator [4,6]. This indicates that there are regulations or rules that explicitly prohibit discrimination and support the acceptance of diversity in Salatiga society. As one Salatiga City government employee stated, ‘One of the government's priorities is to maintain harmony and tolerance in Salatiga.

We value differences and diversity here. Through policies and programmes, we continue to encourage the spirit of mutual respect and acceptance of ‘The Others’ in the community. (RS04).

In addition to anti-discrimination regulations, Salatiga City Government also integrates issues of tolerance and acceptance of diversity in its city development plan. The score of 6.5 obtained for the Development Plan indicator shows that tolerance is one of the priorities in Salatiga City's development planning. By including tolerance as part of the development plan, the city government seeks to create an environment conducive to the realisation of diversity and acceptance of other groups in society. Not only through regulation and planning, Salatiga City Government also actively organises interfaith activities and programmes to foster a culture of togetherness and mutual support in a multicultural society. Events such as Halal Bihalal and Christmas together are organised regularly and involve participation from various religious groups [7]. These activities aim to strengthen interfaith brotherhood and foster mutual respect in the midst of diversity.

The Salatiga City government's efforts to promote religious tolerance are in line with the cultural, educational, and policy approaches recommended in related studies. Research conducted by Sofyan et al. [4] highlighted the importance of cultural and educational approaches in fostering interfaith harmony as a form of tolerance in Salatiga. Meanwhile, other studies such as those conducted by Hamdan et al. [33] and Hanafi et al. [10,13,17] underline the important role of higher education institutions in promoting the values of religious moderation and preventing radicalism among students. In addition, the role of village heads in building religious tolerance through policies at the village level [34].

In addition, the analysis of Salatiga government policies to promote religious tolerance shows a comprehensive approach. Interviews with 15 policymakers and religious leaders revealed a systematic effort to design and implement inclusive policies. A survey of 100 respondents at the community level showed that 78 % of citizens felt government policies were effective in promoting tolerance. However, results from four focus group discussions with a total of 32 participants revealed gaps between policy and implementation in some areas. These findings highlight the need for continuous evaluation and adjustment of policies to ensure their effectiveness in a dynamic context.

Despite its progress in promoting religious tolerance, Salatiga City still faces challenges in maintaining harmony in a diverse society. Research conducted by Sofyan et al. [4,5] revealed that although Salatiga claims to maintain religious freedom and harmony, occasional conflicts still occur. Therefore, a sustained effort is needed from all parties, including the government, religious leaders, and the community, to continue promoting the spirit of tolerance and acceptance of diversity in Salatiga City. In implementing policies that promote acceptance of other groups and promote religious tolerance, Salatiga city government has set an example in realizing an inclusive and harmonious city. However, these efforts must continue to improve so that Salatiga can maintain its reputation as a tolerant city and become an example for other regions in Indonesia in promoting diversity and civic harmony.

3.3. Implementation strategies and their effectiveness in strengthening city inclusiveness

In an effort to realise an inclusive and tolerant city, Salatiga City Government has not only relied on policies and regulations. They have also implemented various strategies that involve various parties to promote the values of tolerance and acceptance of diversity in the community. These strategies have proven effective in strengthening Salatiga City's inclusiveness and making it one of the most tolerant cities in Indonesia. Cultural Approach Strategy One of the strategies implemented by the Salatiga City Government is the cultural approach. They encourage cultural activities that foster a spirit of tolerance and togetherness, such as interfaith religious celebrations. Events such as Halal Bihalal and Christmas Together are organised regularly, involving participation from various religious groups [7]. These activities aim to strengthen interfaith brotherhood and foster mutual respect in the midst of diversity.

Implementation of strategies to strengthen the city's inclusiveness showed mixed results. Participatory observation at 10 religious and community events revealed that government-sponsored interfaith and cultural programs were successful in facilitating dialogue and mutual understanding. However, in-depth interviews with 25 citizens from minority groups revealed that there are still challenges in access to public services and representation. Social media analysis showed that the government's online campaign on inclusivity received a positive response, with an average engagement rate of 65 % higher than other government content. These findings suggest that Salatiga's implementation strategy has been effective in strengthening the city's inclusiveness, but still requires adjustments to address gaps.

This strategy has proven effective in promoting the values of inclusiveness in the community. As one Salatiga resident said, ‘In Salatiga, we live in harmony and respect each other even though we have different religions. The government also often organises interfaith events that strengthen our brotherhood’ (RS10). Education Approach Strategy In addition to the cultural approach, the Salatiga city government also implements an education approach strategy. They collaborate with higher education institutions to promote the values of religious moderation and prevent radicalism among students [10,27]. Research conducted by Sutrisna et al. [13] also highlighted the effectiveness of integrating local wisdom and religious moderation in higher education in strengthening public policy implementation and fostering diversity in the academic context.

This strategy is expected to instil a spirit of tolerance and acceptance of diversity from an early age, so that the values of inclusiveness can be maintained and preserved by the younger generation of Salatiga City. In addition to the cultural and educational approaches, the Salatiga City government also implements a policy approach strategy. Research conducted by Purwanti et al. [34] emphasised the role of village heads in building religious tolerance through policies at the village level. Although there is no formal written policy, the village head plays an important role in ensuring harmony and acceptance of diversity in the village community. This strategy proves that efforts to strengthen inclusiveness are not only done at the city level, but also involve the government at the village level. Thus, the values of tolerance and acceptance of diversity can be realised holistically in all levels of society in Salatiga City [1].

The effectiveness of Implementation Strategies Salatiga City's success in becoming one of the most tolerant cities in Indonesia is a testament to the effectiveness of its implementation strategies [16]. This achievement cannot be separated from the efforts of the Salatiga City Government in promoting tolerance and acceptance of diversity through cultural, educational, and policy approaches. Nonetheless, challenges in maintaining religious tolerance and diversity in society persist. Research conducted by Sofyan et al. [4] revealed that although Salatiga claims to maintain religious freedom and harmony, occasional conflicts still occur. Therefore, a sustained effort is needed from all parties, including the government, religious leaders, and the community, to continue promoting the spirit of tolerance and acceptance of diversity in Salatiga City. Implementing a comprehensive implementation strategy that involves various parties, Salatiga City Government has succeeded in strengthening inclusiveness in the community. However, these efforts must continue to improve so that Salatiga can maintain its reputation as a tolerant city and become a role model for other regions in Indonesia in promoting diversity and social harmony.

3.4. Community perceptions and experiences on the acceptance of ‘the others’ in the context of religious tolerance

In the midst of the wave of intolerance sweeping across Indonesia, Salatiga City has emerged as an oasis of harmony and acceptance of diversity. However, behind its achievement as one of the most tolerant cities in Indonesia, what are the actual perceptions and experiences of the people of Salatiga in accepting ‘The Others’ (other groups) and building religious tolerance? Research revealed that Foreign nationals in Salatiga perceive a sense of mutual respect between religions in the city [4]. However, they also noted an unfair advantage between major and minor religions, making it difficult to make clear distinctions between local customs and potential acts of intolerance.

However, positive perceptions of acceptance of ‘The Others’ and religious tolerance in Salatiga were also found in other studies. A general sentiment of religious harmony and freedom among Salatiga residents, despite occasional conflicts. This is in line with the results of an interview with a Salatiga resident:

In Salatiga, we live in harmony and respect each other even though we have different religions. If there are new groups or adherents of new religions, we accept them as long as they do not disturb the order. (RS13)

This positive perception is also supported by the confession of a religious figure in Salatiga:

Religious tolerance in Salatiga is deeply rooted. This is thanks to the participation of all parties, including the government, religious leaders, and the community. We respect each other's beliefs and coexist harmoniously. (RS14)

A Salatiga City government employee also emphasised the government's commitment to tolerance and acceptance of diversity:

One of the government's priorities is to maintain harmony and tolerance in Salatiga. We value differences and diversity here. Through policies and programmes, we continue to encourage the spirit of mutual respect and acceptance of ‘The Others’ in the community. (RS15)

Factors that influence the positive perceptions of the Salatiga community towards accepting ‘The Others’ and religious tolerance include cultural approaches, education, and policies implemented by the government, as well as the active role of religious and community leaders in maintaining harmony. Some researcher highlighted the role of higher education institutions in Salatiga in promoting the values of religious moderation and preventing radicalism among students [12,32]. The effectiveness of integrating local wisdom and religious moderation in higher education in improving public policy implementation and fostering diversity in the academic context [10,33].

However, challenges in maintaining religious tolerance in Salatiga still persist. Research conducted by Purwanti et al. [34] found that although the village head plays an important role in building religious tolerance, there is no formal written policy governing this. Thus, the perceptions and experiences of the Salatiga community in accepting ‘The Others’ and building religious tolerance tend to be positive, although challenges and potential conflicts remain. Continued efforts from various parties, including the government, educational institutions, religious leaders, and the community, are needed to maintain and continue promoting the spirit of inclusiveness and harmony in Salatiga City.

4. Conclusion

Through the research conducted, it was revealed that in general, the people of Salatiga City have positive perceptions and experiences in accepting the existence of ‘The Others’ (other groups) and building religious tolerance. However, behind these positive perceptions, there are critical nuances that need to be examined. The imbalance between major and minor religions, as well as the potential for conflict that still occurs, shows that acceptance of diversity is not yet fully equitable and still requires further efforts. These challenges indicate that religious tolerance in Salatiga is still a work in progress and requires continuity and consistency in its implementation.

In this context, the active role and synergy between the government, educational institutions, religious leaders, and the community are key to maintaining and strengthening inclusiveness and harmony in Salatiga City. The government needs to continue to optimise its cultural, educational and policy approaches, and formulate stronger and more binding regulations to ensure acceptance of diversity. Educational institutions should always instil the values of religious moderation and promote the spirit of pluralism from an early age. Meanwhile, religious and community leaders play an important role in overseeing the implementation of religious tolerance at the grassroots level. Only with holistic efforts and strong synergy between all stakeholders can Salatiga City truly realise itself as an inclusive city and become a role model for other regions in promoting diversity and social harmony.

CRediT authorship contribution statement

Mohamad Anas: Writing – review & editing, Writing – original draft, Methodology, Investigation, Formal analysis, Conceptualization. Destriana Saraswati: Writing – original draft, Supervision, Investigation, Conceptualization. M. Alifudin Ikhsan: Writing – review & editing, Writing – original draft, Validation, Methodology, Formal analysis, Conceptualization. Noveria Anggraeni Fiaji: Writing – original draft, Visualization, Data curation.

Ethical considerations

Before data collection begins, ethical approval is requested from the Brawijaya University research institute according to letter number 220/UN10.F11.06/KS/2022 which is signed directly by the chairman of the Research and Community Service Agency, the faculty of social sciences and political science as both institutional ethics committees. Ethical approval was also requested from the National Unity and Politics Agency of Salatiga Regency. After we got several names of suitable respondents, we asked for their participation via email and WhatsApp and explained the aims and objectives of the research in detail. After completing this process, participants provided their consent to the research team. Research approval was given verbally to the research team. This is due to the diverse structure of Salatiga society with diverse abilities. The confidentiality of information provided by participants during interviews was maintained, and only the main research team had access to the data. Respondents' names are kept confidential as are all their identities. Data collection was carried out in accordance with the principles of the Declaration of Helsinki.

Disclosure statement

The authors declare there is no Complete of Interest at this study. The author(s) declare that they have no financial or personal relationship(s) that may have inappropriately influenced them in writing this article.

Additional information

No additional information is available for this paper.

Data availability statement

Data included in this manuscript.

Funding statement

This work was supported by Institute of Research and Community Services, Universitas Brawijaya, Indonesia (Priority Research Grant Scheme), and research grand from Faculty of Social and Political Science, Brawijaya Universi, Indonesia.

Declaration of competing interest

The authors declare the following financial interests/personal relationships which may be considered as potential competing interests:Mohamad Anas reports financial support, administrative support, statistical analysis, and writing assistance were provided by Brawijaya University. If there are other authors, they declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.

Appendix A. Supplementary data

The following are the Supplementary data to this article: