Abstract
Background
Depression is one of the most prevalent mental disorders and causes a serious economic and medical burden on society. This research assessed the correlation between weekend catch-up sleep (WCS) and depression in US adults aged ≥ 20 years.
Methods
Cross-sectional data were obtained from individuals with complete WCS and Patient Health Questionnaire (PHQ-9) data who participated in the 2017–2020 National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES). A logistic regression analysis was conducted to evaluate the possible independent conjunction between depression and WCS. Subgroup analysis and interaction tests have been carried out.
Results
A total of 7,795 individuals with an average PHQ-9 level of 3.27 ± 4.25 were analyzed. The prevalence of depression was 9.11% overall, and participants in the quartile 3 (WCS 1–2 h) tended to have lowest rates of depression (Quartile 1: 9.49%; Quartile 2: 9.95%; Quartile 3: 7.03%; Quartile 4: 8.75%; p = 0.014). The incidence of depression was found to be less correlated with 1–2 h of WCS (OR = 0.74, 95% CI: 0.55, 0.99). Individuals with less than one hour or more than two hours of WCS did not have a significantly different risk of depression than individuals without WCS.
Conclusions
Moderate catch-up sleep on weekends was linked to a decreased likelihood of depression.
Keywords: Weekend catch-up sleep, Depression, PHQ-9 score, Cross-sectional study
Background
One of the most common psychological diseases worldwide, depression was listed in the Global Burden of Disease research as the third most severe health-causing impairment originating from a medical condition worldwide. With the worldwide coronavirus pandemic, the incidence of depression in adults jumped from 8.5% to a staggering 27.8%, and the trend continues to climb [1]. Depression has a spectrum of symptoms, including emotion and cognitive dysfunction. It not only leads to a decreased standard of life for the person suffering, but it also increases the risk of many diseases [2] and even leads to death [3].
Adequate sleep is a critical component of staying healthy, and sleep deprivation may be related to an increased risk of many chronic diseases. However, research findings show that the percentage of short sleepers in the U.S. has expanded significantly during the previous several decades, probably due to work schedules and socialization demands [4]. This is called weekend catch-up sleep (WCS), as some individuals compensate for their lackluster workday sleep by using the weekend. WCS has positive effects on patients with hypertension, hyperglycemia, and hyperlipidemia [5–7]. People who catch up on 1–2 h of sleep on weekends are less likely to suffer from depression compared with those who fail to, according to a 2021 research based on a Korean population [8]. However, there are no studies on WCS and depression for the U.S. population.
Therefore, the aim of this research is to investigate the connection between WCS and depression in a substantial, nationally representative number of the US population. Data from the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES) was gathered from January 2017 to March 2020.
Methods
Survey description
NHANES is a nationally designed, comprehensive, and integrated study approved by the National Center for Health Statistics (NCHS) to assess the basic health condition and nutrient level of the population of the United States on a national basis [9]. Data are usually collected every two years and include routine demographic data, data on food and energy intake, laboratory data, examination data, and self-reported questionnaire responses. However, the COVID-19 epidemic disrupted data collection in March 2020, so the 2019–2020 data were merged with the 2017–2018 to form a representative sample of the 2017–2020 pre-pandemic March data. It is for the period January 2017 to March 2020 that we obtained.
The National Center for Health Statistics ethical review board at the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) authorized the survey procedures. Before taking part in the study, everyone involved submitted written permission. The public may access all complete NHANES study methodologies and data at www.cdc.gov/nchs/nhanes/.
Study population
Since only the NHANES 2017–2020 survey period had details on weekdays and weekends, it was employed to compute weekend catch-up sleep duration for this study.
For this analysis, only participants with comprehensive data regarding their WCS and PHQ-9 scores were included. Initially, 15,560 individuals were enrolled. After excluding those under 20 years old (n = 6,328), with incomplete sleep data (n = 122), or missing PHQ-9 scores (n = 1,315), a total of 7,795 participants were included in the final analysis. Figure 1 displays a flowchart illustrating the process of screening participants.
Fig. 1.
Flowchart of the sample selection from NHANES 2017‒2020
Initially, 15,560 participants were enrolled. After excluding those under 20 years old (n = 6,328), with missing WCS data (n = 122), or PHQ-9 scores (n = 1,315), a total of 7,795 participants were included in the final analysis
Definition of weekend catch-up sleep duration and depression
Sleep duration was assessed via a standardized NHANES survey question, where participants reported their average sleep hours per night separately for weekdays and weekends. Based on previous studies [10–12], weekend catch-up sleep (WCS) was calculated as the difference between the average sleep duration per night on weekends (Saturday and Sunday nights) and the average sleep duration per night on weekdays. We classified WCS duration into WCS<0, 0 ≤ WCS<1, 1 ≤ WCS<2, and WCS>2 for analysis.
Depression was assessed using a nine-item Patient Health Questionnaire (PHQ-9) questionnaire in NHANES [13]. This screening instrument incorporates the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fourth Edition (DSM-IV) depression diagnostic criteria [14]. It was administered to ascertain how often feelings of despair happened during the previous two weeks. There are 27 total points available, with 0–3 scores allocated to the answers classified “not at all,” “several days,” “more than half the days,” and “nearly every day” for each symptom inquiry. The respondent is deemed to have depression if their PHQ-9 level is higher or equal to 10.
The WCS was intended to be an exposure factor in this research, whereas depression was considered a consequence variable.
Selection of covariates
The covariates selected for inclusion in this study encompassed gender (classified as male or female), age(in years), race (including Mexican American/other Hispanic/non-Hispanic White/non-Hispanic Black/other races), education attainment (category below high school, high school or general educational development, and above high school), body mass index (BMI in kg/m2; classified as underweight, normal weight, overweight and obese according to BMI value less than 18.5, 18.5–24.9, 25-29.9 and more than 30), blood lipid level (included total cholesterol, triglycerides, high-density lipoprotein cholesterol, low-density lipoprotein cholesterol, all unit in mmol/L), hypertension (marked as yes or no), diabetes (marked as yes or no) and insomnia (marked as yes or no). The public can access the comprehensive measurement procedures for these variables at www.cdc.gov/nchs/nhanes/.
Statistical analysis
The software for statistical analysis EmpowerStats (http://www.empowerstats.net/cn/index.php) and R 3.4.3 (https://www.r-project.org/) were employed during all assessments. For continual variables, the baseline features were represented as mean ± standard deviation (SD), and for categorical ones, in ratios. The Kruskal-Wallis rank-sum test and analysis of variance (ANOVA) test were applied to examine the statistical significance of variations in continuous variables across the various groups. The Chi-square test was utilized to calculate the significance of variations in categories. To identify the uncorrelated connection between exposure factors (WCS) and outcomes (depression), three models were employed in the multiple logistic regression analysis: non-adjusted model; model 1 adjusts for key demographic variables; model 2 adjusts for all included covariates. Subgroup analysis and interaction tests were utilized to gain insight into the link between WCS and depression in various demographic categories. A p-value of < 0.05 was considered statistically significant.
Results
Baseline characteristics of participants
In the present investigation, 7,795 individuals and an average age of 50.71 ± 17.43 years were recruited. Of these, 51.01% were female. The four groupings extended of WCS were WCS<0, 0 ≤ WCS<1, 1 ≤ WCS<2, and WCS>2, respectively. The mean PHQ-9 score was 3.27 ± 4.25 (range: 0–27) for all participants. The prevalence of depression was 9.11% overall, and participants in quartile 3 tended to have the lowest rates of depression (Quartile 1: 9.49%; Quartile 2: 9.95%; Quartile 3: 7.03%; Quartile 4: 8.75%; p = 0.014). Among the four WCS quartiles, differences with statistical significance were noted in age, race, education level, hypertension, diabetes, insomnia, BMI, total cholesterol, HDL-C, LDL-C, triglycerides and PHQ-9 ≥ 10 (all p < 0.05). The statistical significance was not satisfied by the difference in gender, or PHQ-9 score (all p > 0.05) (Table 1).
Table 1.
Baseline characteristics of participants
| Characteristics | Overall | Quartile 1 (WCS < 0) |
Quartile 2 (0 ≤ WCS<1) | Quartile 3 (1 ≤ WCS<2) | Quartile 4 (WCS>2) | P-value |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| N = 1243 | N = 3518 | N = 1366 | N = 1668 | |||
| Age (year) | 50.71 ± 17.43 | 47.77 ± 17.60 | 56.22 ± 17.45 | 46.98 ± 15.62 | 44.33 ± 15.01 | < 0.001 |
| Gender (%) | 0.098 | |||||
| Male | 3819 (48.99) | 618 (49.72) | 1761 (50.06) | 631 (46.19) | 809 (48.50) | |
| Female | 3976 (51.01) | 625 (50.28) | 1757 (49.94) | 735 (53.81) | 859 (51.50) | |
| Race (%) | < 0.001 | |||||
| Mexican American | 909 (11.66) | 127 (10.22) | 324 (9.21) | 171 (12.52) | 287 (17.21) | |
| Other Hispanic | 801 (10.28) | 112 (9.01) | 322 (9.15) | 154 (11.27) | 213 (12.77) | |
| Non-Hispanic White | 2772 (35.56) | 400 (32.18) | 1533 (43.58) | 443 (32.43) | 396 (23.74) | |
| Non-Hispanic Black | 2057 (26.39) | 432 (34.75) | 745 (21.18) | 361 (26.43) | 519 (31.12) | |
| Other Races | 1256 (16.11) | 172 (13.84) | 594 (16.88) | 237 (17.35) | 253 (15.17) | |
| Education level (%) | < 0.001 | |||||
| Less than high school | 1378 (17.68) | 214 (17.22) | 629 (17.88) | 193 (14.13) | 342 (20.50) | |
| High school or GED | 1878 (24.09) | 345 (27.76) | 815 (23.17) | 290 (21.23) | 428 (25.66) | |
| Above high school | 4539 (58.23) | 684 (55.03) | 2074 (58.95) | 883 (64.64) | 898 (53.84) | |
| Hypertension (%) | < 0.001 | |||||
| Yes | 2985 (38.29) | 490 (39.42) | 1529 (43.46) | 461 (33.75) | 505 (30.28) | |
| No | 4810 (61.71) | 753 (60.58) | 1989 (56.54) | 905 (66.25) | 1163 (69.72) | |
| Diabetes (%) | < 0.001 | |||||
| Yes | 1413 (18.13) | 206 (16.57) | 762 (21.66) | 203 (14.86) | 242 (14.51) | |
| No | 6382 (81.87) | 1037 (83.43) | 2756 (78.34) | 1163 (85.14) | 1426 (85.49) | |
| Insomnia (%) | < 0.001 | |||||
| Yes | 2269 (29.11) | 358 (28.80) | 1121 (31.86) | 388 (28.40) | 402 (24.10) | |
| No | 5526 (70.89) | 885 (71.20) | 2397 (68.14) | 978 (71.60) | 1266 (75.90) | |
| BMI (kg/m2) | 30.08 ± 7.52 | 30.25 ± 7.95 | 29.72 ± 7.02 | 30.15 ± 7.77 | 30.67 ± 7.94 | 0.002 |
| Total cholesterol (mmol/L) | 4.80 ± 1.03 | 4.73 ± 1.02 | 4.80 ± 1.08 | 4.87 ± 0.98 | 4.78 ± 0.96 | 0.002 |
| HDL-C (mmol/L) | 1.38 ± 0.40 | 1.37 ± 0.40 | 1.40 ± 0.40 | 1.39 ± 0.39 | 1.33 ± 0.39 | < 0.001 |
| LDL-C (mmol/L) | 2.76 ± 0.63 | 2.74 ± 0.62 | 2.75 ± 0.66 | 2.79 ± 0.63 | 2.77 ± 0.57 | 0.018 |
| Triglycerides (mmol/L) | 1.11 ± 0.74 | 1.09 ± 0.79 | 1.13 ± 0.82 | 1.08 ± 0.52 | 1.11 ± 0.67 | 0.002 |
| PHQ-9 score | 3.27 ± 4.25 | 3.23 ± 4.10 | 3.41 ± 4.47 | 2.98 ± 3.86 | 3.26 ± 4.16 | 0.651 |
| PHQ-9 ≥ 10 | 0.014 | |||||
| Yes | 710 (9.11) | 118 (9.49) | 350 (9.95) | 96 (7.03) | 146 (8.75) | |
| No | 7085 (90.89) | 1125 (90.51) | 3168 (90.05) | 1270 (92.97) | 1522 (91.25) |
Continuous variables were analyzed using the Kruskal-Wallis rank-sum test or ANOVA test. Categorical variables were analyzed using the Chi-square test. A p-value < 0.05 was considered statistically significant
Abbreviations: WCS: weekend catch-up sleep; BMI: body mass index; GED: general educational development; HDL-C: high-density lipoprotein cholesterol; LDL-C: low-density lipoprotein cholesterol; PHQ-9: patient health questionnaire-9
Association between weekend catch-up sleep and depression
The findings of the multivariate logistic regression analysis evaluating the relationship between WCS and depression are shown in Table 2. The present results showed that 1–2 h of catch-up sleep on weekends was associated with a lower PHQ-9 score and a lower risk of depression. However, no such association was found for other groups.
Table 2.
Association between weekend catch-up sleep and depression
| OR (95% CI) P-value | |||
|---|---|---|---|
| Non-adjusted model | Model 1 | Model 2 | |
| Quartile 1 (WCS < 0) | 1.0 (Reference) | 1.0 (Reference) | 1.0 (Reference) |
| Quartile 2 (0 ≤ WCS<1) | 1.05 (0.85, 1.31) 0.643 | 1.08 (0.86, 1.35) 0.500 | 1.10 (0.87, 1.39) 0.412 |
| Quartile 3 (1 ≤ WCS<2) | 0.72 (0.54, 0.95) 0.022 | 0.71 (0.53, 0.94) 0.016 | 0.74 (0.55, 0.99) 0.044 |
| Quartile 4 (WCS>2) | 0.91 (0.71, 1.18) 0.492 | 0.90 (0.69, 1.16) 0.411 | 0.95 (0.73, 1.25) 0.730 |
Abbreviations: WCS: weekend catch-up sleep; OR: odd ratio; 95% CI: 95% confidence interval
Non-adjusted model: No covariates were adjusted
Model 1: Adjusted for gender, age, and race
Model 2: Adjusted for gender, age, race, education level, body mass index, hypertension, diabetes, insomnia, HDL-C, LDL-C, total cholesterol and triglycerides
In the entirely adjusting model (model 2), a negative correlation between quartile three and depression was discovered (OR = 0.74, 95% CI: 0.55, 0.99), demonstrating that every unit increase in WCS was associated with a 26% lower likelihood of depression when catching up on sleep between 1 and 2 h over the weekend.
Subgroup analysis
To assess the consistency of the correlation between depression and WCS in different subgroups of the population, we performed subgroup analyses (Table 3). The results showed no interaction with WCS and depression in all subgroup analyses (all p values > 0.05). There was a more pronounced relationship between WCS and depression in subjects who were male, 40–59 years of age and hypertensive (OR = 0.89, 0.91, 0.92 respectively), indicating that the correlation between catching up on 1–2 h of sleep on weekends and reducing the possibility of getting depressed was more significant in a population of hypertensive men aged 40–59 years.
Table 3.
Subgroup analysis for the association between WCS and depression
| Depression | OR (95% CI), P for trend | P for interaction |
|---|---|---|
| Gender | 0.077 | |
| Male | 0.89 (0.82, 0.97), 0.005 | |
| Female | 0.98 (0.92, 1.04), 0.440 | |
| Age (years) | 0.276 | |
| 20–40 | 0.96 (0.89, 1.05), 0.370 | |
| 40–59 | 0.91 (0.84, 1.00), 0.040 | |
| ≥ 60 | 1.02 (0.92, 1.13), 0.711 | |
| Education level | 0.176 | |
| Less than high school | 0.92 (0.83, 1.02), 0.110 | |
| High school or GED | 1.03 (0.94, 1.13), 0.524 | |
| Above high school | 0.93 (0.86, 1.01), 0.091 | |
| BMI | 0.164 | |
| Underweight | 0.76 (0.48, 1.20) 0.236 | |
| Normal weight | 0.90 (0.79, 1.03), 0.128 | |
| Overweight | 1.04 (0.95, 1.14), 0.417 | |
| Obese | 0.94 (0.87, 1.00), 0.060 | |
| Hypertension | 0.174 | |
| Yes | 0.92 (0.85, 1.00), 0.037 | |
| No | 0.99 (0.92, 1.06), 0.728 | |
| Diabetes | 0.642 | |
| Yes | 0.98 (0.88, 1.09), 0.716 | |
| No | 0.95 (0.90, 1.01), 0.094 | |
| Insomnia | 0.312 | |
| Yes | 0.98 (0.92, 1.05) 0.588 | |
| No | 0.93 (0.86, 1.01) 0.071 |
Abbreviations: WCS: weekend catch-up sleep; OR: odds ratio; 95% CI: 95% confidence interval; BMI: body mass index; GED: general educational development
Discussions
The relationship between WCS and depression was evaluated by this cross-sectional investigation, which was broadly representative and contained 7,795 individuals. The primary discovery of this study is that American adults who get 1–2 h of catch-up sleep on weekends are less likely to suffer from depression. Moreover, this result was more pronounced in the population of middle-aged men with hypertension. The present results indicated that moderate catch-up sleep on weekends may reduce the occurrence of depression.
Sleep is deeply related to mental health. Our findings show that 65.2% of individuals with depression also reported experiencing insomnia, highlighting the strong link between insomnia and depressive symptoms, consistent with previous studies [15, 16]. Therefore, screening and treating sleep disorders are critical components of comprehensive depression management. However, another subset of depressed patients reported oversleeping [17]. A 2015 meta-analysis that included seven prospective studies showed that insufficient or excessive sleep duration was strongly linked to a higher possibility of depression in adults [18]. With socio-economic development, longer working hours and abundant recreational activities have squeezed our sleep time. A growing number of people have begun to use the weekend to cover up for the sleep shortfall on weekdays. WCS has been shown to have a significant inverse association with the development of metabolic disorders [19], dyslipidemia [20], cardiovascular disease [21], and non-alcoholic fatty liver disease [22]. The findings of a previous cross-sectional study of 10,123 adolescents in the U.S. showed that adolescents who did not differ in the amount of sleep they got on weekends and weekdays or who had a difference of over 2 h (oversleeping on weekends) were more at risk for depression, anxiety, and suicidal ideation [23]. In addition, a study in 2021 that explored the link between WCS and depression, which included a total of 5,550 Koreans, revealed the findings through multivariate regression analysis that participants with 1–2 h of WCS duration showed a substantially reduced likelihood of experiencing depression compared to participants with 0 h of WCS duration (OR = 0.517, 95% CI = 0.309–0.865) [24]. These are in line with our study. Moderate WCS may serve as a simple and accessible behavioral intervention to mitigate the adverse effects of sleep deprivation on mental health.
In the general population, women are more likely than men to experience both insomnia and depression, a pattern that has been widely documented in the literature [25, 26]. In our study, the proportion of women was also slightly higher than men among individuals with insomnia and depression (56.3% and 61.8%, respectively). Biological factors, such as hormonal fluctuations during the menstrual cycle, pregnancy, and menopause, play a significant role in increasing the susceptibility of women to these conditions [27]. Hormonal changes can disrupt the regulation of sleep-wake cycles and emotional stability [28], thereby contributing to higher rates of insomnia and depression in women. Additionally, psychosocial factors may further exacerbate these gender differences. Women are more likely to take on caregiving responsibilities and experience greater exposure to chronic stressors, which can negatively impact both sleep quality and mental health. Our study found that the protective association between moderate weekend catch-up sleep (WCS) and depression was more pronounced in middle-aged men with hypertension. This finding could reflect gender differences in how sleep deprivation and WCS impact mental health. Hypertension is often associated with heightened sympathetic nervous system activity [29] and chronic low-grade inflammation [30], both of which are key contributors to depression. Moderate WCS may help mitigate depressive symptoms in hypertensive individuals by stabilizing the sympathetic nervous system, reducing cortisol levels, and alleviating systemic inflammation [31]. Middle age is a period of increasing health challenges and psychosocial stress, with men often facing greater work-related pressure and social responsibilities than women. These factors make middle-aged men more vulnerable to the effects of sleep deprivation, further heightening their risk of depression. WCS may act as a buffer, relieving accumulated stress and providing significant protective effects against depression in this high-risk group. Consequently, the restorative impact of WCS may be particularly impactful in reducing depression risk among middle-aged men with hypertension. This provides recommendations for prospective personalized preventive management of different population classifications of depressed patients in the United States.
A variety of complex processes may explain the linkage involving the length of sleep and despair. One hypothesis suggests that sleep deprivation or oversleeping may increase inflammatory markers (e.g., IL-6, TNF, and CRP) through activation of the sympathetic nervous system and β-adrenergic signaling, which elevates levels of NF-κB, a critical transcriptional control pathway in the inflammatory signaling cascade response. It activates inflammatory gene expression [32]. There was also a strong link between inflammatory mechanisms and depression, with markers of inflammation significantly higher in depressed than in non-depressed individuals [33]. Moderate catch-up sleep during the weekend may have beneficial health effects by stabilizing the sympathetic nervous system and lowering markers of inflammation, thereby reducing depressive symptoms. On the other hand, it has been shown that major depressive disorder is associated with disruption of the rapid eye movement sleep period [34]. In the classic depressive model, olfactory bulbectomized rats have markedly abnormal rapid eye movement sleep during the light period [35], a characteristic change that has been observed in other animal models of depression [36]. In the sleep electroencephalograms recorded in depressed patients, it was observed that non-fast eye movement sleep periods were reduced, and the distribution of delta activity was disturbed. In contrast, rapid eye movement sleep periods were prolonged, and sleep density deepened [37]. It is well known that aberrant hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis circadian activity is linked to depression [38]. The circadian system controls sleep-wake cycles, including duration, structure, and continuity [39]. Workday sleep deprivation may be disrupting the circadian rhythm system, making the sleep-wake cycle disorganized, while weekend catch-up sleep, a new sleep pattern adapted to the current pace of life in our society, repairs the circadian rhythm system to a certain extent through the subjective perceived quality of sleep, leading to a reduction in the incidence of depression. However, prolonged sleep may cause abnormal photoperiod, sleep fragmentation, fatigue, depression, and even an increased risk of death [40]. This might explain the results of our study.
There are several advantages to this research. First, the data used in this research came from NHANES, a national sample of people based on an established procedure. The research samples are more representative since all analyses considered the proper NHANES sampling weights. We conducted a subgroup analysis and corrected for uncertainties to make the findings more dependable. Nonetheless, it is essential to acknowledge the limits of this research. First, the causal connection between WCS and depression could not be clarified because it was a cross-sectional study. Second, self-reported data on sleep duration may be less accurate than the measurements. In addition, due to the significant missing data on prescription drug use in the NHANES database, this study did not include information on participants’ medication use. Given that medications such as antidepressants or sedatives may influence both sleep duration and depressive symptoms, this remains a potential confounding factor. Future studies should incorporate more complete medication use data to provide a more comprehensive and precise analysis.
Conclusion
Individuals who catch up on 1–2 h of sleep on weekends have a reduced risk of depression compared to those without WCS among U.S. adults, with the association being particularly strong in middle-aged men with hypertension. No significant differences in depression risk were observed for individuals with 0–1 or > 2 h of WCS. These findings suggest that moderate WCS could serve as a simple, low-cost strategy to prevent depression, particularly in high-risk populations such as middle-aged hypertensive men. Incorporating sleep assessments and promoting balanced sleep recovery into clinical and public health practices may enhance the prevention and management of depression. Further research is needed to explore the physiological mechanisms underlying the link between sleep regulation and depression.
Acknowledgements
We would like to thank all participants in this study.
Abbreviations
- WCS
Weekend catch-up sleep
- NHANES
National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey
- NCHS
National Center for Health Statistics
- CDC
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention
- BMI
Body mass index
- GED
General educational development
- SD
Standard deviation
- ANOVA
Analysis of variance
- HDL-C
High-density lipoprotein cholesterol
- LDL-C
Low-density lipoprotein cholesterol
- PHQ-9
Patient Health Questionnaire
- OR
Odd ratio
- 95% CI
95% confidence interval
- IL-6
Interleukin- 6
- TNF
Tumor necrosis factor
- CRP
C-reactive protein
- NF-κB
Nuclear factor kappa-B
Author contributions
Lingying Le collected and analyzed the data, wrote the manuscript. Ziwei Lan revised the manuscript. Chenxi Chen designed the study and reviewed the manuscript. All authors reviewed the manuscript. The authors read and approved the final manuscript.
Funding
This research was supported by the grant (#3502Z20224ZD1075) from the Xiamen medical and sanitary guidance project.
Data availability
The datasets analyzed during the current study are available in the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey repository, https://www.cdc.gov/Nchs/Nhanes/.
Declarations
Ethics approval and consent to participate
Data collection for the NHANES was approved by the NCHS Research Ethics Review Board (ERB). An individual investigator utilizing the publicly available NHANES data do not need to file the institution internal review board (IRB).
Consent for publication
Not applicable.
Competing interests
The authors declare no competing interests.
Footnotes
Publisher’s note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
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Associated Data
This section collects any data citations, data availability statements, or supplementary materials included in this article.
Data Availability Statement
The datasets analyzed during the current study are available in the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey repository, https://www.cdc.gov/Nchs/Nhanes/.