ABSTRACT
Objective:
To select indicators of the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) that determine child malnutrition (CM) in Brazil and to monitor the achievement of SDG targets by region in 2022.
Methods:
This is a cross-sectional, ecological study that used the Brazilian Sustainable Development indices and analyzed the 100 SDG monitoring indicators in the 5,570 Brazilian municipalities. A decision tree was created and sensitivity analysis was performed to predict CM determinants. Data were analyzed using the χ2 test at 5% significance level. Descriptive analyses and the decision tree were carried out using the R software.
Results:
The CM determinants according to percentage, most affected regions of the country, and impact order were: illiteracy in the population aged ≥15 years (Northeast), insufficient prenatal care (North), low birth weight (South), young women aged 15-24 years who neither study nor work (North and Northeast), and employed population aged 10-17 years (South). We observed an individual and cumulative effect on the CM prevalence, ranging from 1.73 to 15.1%, in Brazilian municipalities according to the occurrence and overlap of these indicators.
Conclusion:
The results denote that Brazil will not achieve the intended reduction of CM by 2025. There must be substantial investments in education and health mainly aimed at the maternal and child population and especially in the North and Northeast regions.
Keywords: Child nutrition disorders, Sustainable development, Social determinants of health, Maternal and child health
INTRODUCTION
Child malnutrition (CM) is characterized by a deficiency of basic nutrients that culminates in weight and height deficits 1 , and is considered a public health issue in middle- and low-income countries 2 . Indices — such as weight for age (W/A) and height for age (H/A) — were adopted by the United Nations (UN) for the diagnosis of CM, with W/A being a measure of recent nutritional status and H/A, a history of nutrition and health conditions since birth, making them important requirements for assessing the country's socioeconomic and political situation 3-5 .
In 2000, the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) were established by UN member states, and one of the targets was to reduce the global prevalence of stunting in children aged <5 years by half, by the year 2015 3 . Since then, food and nutritional security has become the target of public policies to combat poverty and CM in Brazil 6 , and the prevalence of CM has reduced from 13.5% in 1996 to 6.8% in 2007 — attributed to the expansion of health coverage, education, sanitation, and increased family income 7 .
Following the success in achieving many MDGs targets, in 2012, the 2030 Agenda was established, with 17 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), in force as of 2016 8,9 . One of the international targets is to end all forms of malnutrition by 2030, and to achieve the international targets on stunting (reduce it by 40%) and underweight (reduce it and maintain <5%) in children aged <5 years by 2025 9 . National targets were adjusted by Brazilian experts to H/A <3% 10,11 . It should be noted that low W/A is an acute condition that can change frequently and rapidly, which makes it difficult to generate reliable trends over time 12 , while stunting refers to a chronic condition, regardless of the child's ethnicity, socioeconomic status, and type of feeding 13 .
The socioeconomic and political crisis that took place in the country in 2014 impacted the increase in poverty, the adoption of tax austerity measures, the increase in food prices, and the reduction of social protection measures for the most socioeconomically vulnerable groups, contributing to the increase in CM 14 . In 2019, the prevalence of stunting reached 13.4%, reducing to 11.7% in 2022, with the lowest prevalence values observed in the South (9%) and Southeast (11.5%), and the highest in the North (15.4%) and Northeast (12.9%), according to data from the Food and Nutrition Surveillance System (Sistema de Vigilância Alimentar e Nutricional - SISVAN) 15 . This system presents data on the population served by Primary Health Care (PHC) and beneficiaries of income transfer programs 5 , as nutritional monitoring is part of their conditionalities 16 .
There is a need to monitor SDG indicators to achieve the target of reducing CM by 2025, as it is a persistent problem in Brazil. Furthermore, CM presents regional disparities and consists of a complex process influenced by intrinsic (physiological) and extrinsic (food, housing, environment, family income, parents' education and access to goods, essential services 17 , and maternal and child care 18 ) causes that integrate several SDG indicators 19 . In Brazil, there are no studies whose authors have investigated the interactions between SDG indicators and the prevalence of CM.
The application of robust statistical methods, such as decision and regression trees (DRT) 20 , enables to identify the interaction of different factors with the prevalence of CM. From this analysis, we can identify the SDG indicators that determine CM in children aged <5 years in Brazilian municipalities as well as its individual and cumulative effects on this prevalence.
In this study we aimed to select the SDG indicators that determine CM in Brazil using the DRT in 2022 and monitor the achievement of CM targets, by region. The findings of this study may provide information that guides decision-making in the implementation of social and health public policies.
METHODS
This is an ecological study with the use of data from the Sustainable Development Index of Cities — Brazil (Índice de Desenvolvimento Sustentável das Cidades - IDSC-BR) to monitor the implementation of the SDGs. IDSC-BR uses data produced by national sources, such as the Brazilian Institute of Geography and Statistics (IBGE), the Department of Informatics of the Brazilian Unified Health System (Datasus), the Anísio Teixeira National Institute of Studies and Educational Research (Instituto Nacional de Estudos e Pesquisas Educacionais Anísio Teixeira - INEP), the Institute for Applied Economic Research (Instituto de Pesquisa e Economia Aplicada - Ipea); information-producing agencies; and executors of government policies linked to the UN 11 . The data used in this study were published in 2022 and are available on the IDSC-BR website (https://www.cidadessustentaveis.org.br/).
In this study, the 5,570 Brazilian municipalities 21 were evaluated by the 100 indicators of the 17 SDGs, including CM, whose data come from SISVAN 5 . The dependent variable was the prevalence of CM in children aged <5 years, measured by the H/A index, while the independent variables were the other 99 SDG indicators (Chart 1).
Chart 1. Indicators of the Sustainable Development Goals and respective cut-off points.
| Sustainable Development Goal | Indicator | Target value (%) | Green threshold (%) | Red threshold (%) | Lower threshold (%) |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1 | Families registered in the Cadastro Único [Single Registry] (a Federal Government initiative that gathers information on Brazilian families in situation of poverty and extreme poverty) for social programs (%) | 96 | 87 | 64 | 48 |
| 1 | Percentage of people registered in the Cadastro Único who receive Bolsa Família | 96.6 | 80.5 | 42.82 | 22.96 |
| 1 | Percentage of people below the poverty line in the Cadastro Único after Bolsa Família | 0 | 21.48 | 41.59 | 92.8 |
| 1 | People with income of up to 1/4 of the minimum wage (%) | 0.18 | 5.74 | 4.45 | 15.45 |
| 2 | Childhood obesity (%) | 0 | 5 | 10 | 20 |
| 2 | Low birth weight (%) | 0 | 6 | 11 | 13 |
| 2 | Child malnutrition (%) | 0 | 1 | 3 | 5 |
| 2 | Family farming producers with support from PRONAF (%) | 100 | 75 | 55 | 6 |
| 3 | Vaccine coverage (%) | 100 | 95 | 60 | 40 |
| 3 | Infant mortality (children under 1 year of age) (one thousand live births) | 0 | 12 | 19 | 45 |
| 3 | Maternal mortality (one thousand live births) | 0 | 0.61 | 3.21 | 6.7 |
| 3 | Child mortality (children under 5 years of age) (one thousand live births) | 0 | 25 | 37 | 50 |
| 3 | Neonatal mortality (children aged 0 to 27 days) (one thousand live births) | 0 | 12 | 20 | 36 |
| 3 | Municipal health budget (in BRL, per capita) | 4,680 | 1,300 | 476 | 395 |
| 3 | Population served by family health teams (%) | 100 | 86 | 60 | 0 |
| 3 | Insufficient prenatal care (%) | 0 | 10 | 38 | 59 |
| 3 | Health Centers (one thousand inhabitants) | 1.89 | 0.55 | 0.15 | 0 |
| 3 | Life expectancy at birth (years) | 79 | 75 | 71 | 67 |
| 3 | Pregnancy in adolescence (%) | 0 | 9.98 | 23.46 | 30.81 |
| 4 | Basic Education Development Index (Índice de Desenvolvimento da Educação Básica - IDEB) - initial years (IN) | 8.98 | 6.65 | 4.67 | 3.8 |
| 4 | Young people with complete high school by the age of 19 years (%) | 100 | 70 | 42 | 5 |
| 4 | Illiteracy in the population aged 15 years and over (%) | 0 | 3 | 17 | 30 |
| 4 | Children and young people aged 4 to 17 years at school (%) | 100 | 95 | 87 | 82 |
| 5 | Young women aged 15 to 24 years who neither study nor work (%) | 0.83 | 20.46 | 39.4 | 47.06 |
| 5 | Gender pay gap (women's salary/men's salary) | 1 | 0.9 | 0.6 | 0.5 |
| 6 | Diseases related to inadequate environmental sanitation (100 thousand inhabitants) | 0 | 136.21 | 367.4288361 | 967.12 |
| 6 | Population served by water service (%) | 100 | 85 | 53 | 0 |
| 6 | Population served by sanitary sewer (%) | 100 | 70 | 50 | 0 |
| 6 | Population served with household collection of municipal solid waste (%) | 100 | 80 | 60 | 0 |
| 7 | Households with access to electricity (%) | 100 | 99 | 90 | 80 |
| 8 | Employed population aged 10-17 years (%) | 0 | 7.59 | 25.93 | 41.32 |
| 8 | GDP per capita (BRL per capita) | 56,000 | 38,000 | 23,000 | 7,300 |
| 8 | Unemployment (rate) | 0 | 3 | 10.27 | 15.57 |
| 9 | Public investment in infrastructure as a proportion of GDP (%) | 15 | 10 | 5 | 0.6 |
| 9 | Share of jobs in knowledge- and technology-intensive activities (%) | 43.28 | 14.3 | 1.92 | 0 |
| 10 | Municipal income appropriated by the 20% poorest (%) | 20 | 10 | 7 | 1.5 |
| 10 | Gini coefficient | 0.275 | 0.3 | 0.4 | 0.63 |
| 10 | Infant mortality ratio (Black/non-Black) | 1 | 1 | 1.44 | 2.08 |
| 10 | Access to primary health care equipment | 0 | 2 | 30 | 100 |
| 11 | Population living in substandard settlements (%) | 0 | 0.8 | 5 | 22 |
| 11 | Households in slums (%) | 0 | 1.04 | 5.55 | 13.12 |
| 12 | Household waste per capita (Ton/Inhabitant/Year) | 1 | 1.5 | 2 | 3.2 |
| 17 | Public investment (BRL per capita) | 2,253.88 | 563.255 | 239.105 | 60.79 |
| 17 | Total revenue collected (%) | 51.35 | 19.73 | 3.9 | 1.19 |
PRONAF: National Program for Strengthening Family Agriculture (Programa Nacional de Fortalecimento da Agricultura Familiar); GDP: gross domestic product.
According to IDSC-BR, the recommended nomenclature and categorization for SDG indicators are: target value (represented by the color green), green threshold (in yellow), red threshold (in orange), and lower threshold (in red). It also considers achieved targets to be the combination of the target value and green threshold, which were, didactically, represented in this study only by the color green; and unachieved targets to be the combination of the red threshold and the lower threshold, represented by the color red 11 . The values established by the SDGs to assess the prevalence of CM were: <1% (target value); 1 to <3% (green threshold); 3 to <5% (red threshold); and ≥5% (lower threshold) 11 (https://www.cidadessustentaveis.org.br/methodology).
In the descriptive analysis, categorical variables were presented in absolute and relative frequencies, while continuous variables were presented as means and standard errors of the sample mean (SE).
To select the indicators determining the prevalence of CM, the DRT was used 20 . Once the tree was created, the sensitivity to predict the main independent variables determining CM was calculated. DRT is a method that divides data into segments that are as homogeneous as possible in relation to the outcome variable (prevalence of CM). A node is considered homogeneous when all cases have the same value for the outcome based on a specific determinant 20 . The χ² test was performed to verify the statistical significance of these correlations and a 5% significance level was adopted. Descriptive analyses and the decision tree were performed using the R software, version 4.3.0.
This study does not require an Informed Consent Form or submission to the Research Ethics Committee as it uses data from IDSC-BR, which do not include confidential information and are freely accessible. Ethical issues, guidelines, and standards that regulate research in Brazil were respected.
RESULTS
The distribution of CM in Brazil, according to the SDG color panel, and the achievement of its targets are presented in Figure 1. The concentration of municipalities that reached the target for the prevalence of CM in the South and Southeast regions is clear: 76.5% of municipalities, with 16.2% classified as red threshold and 7.3% as lower threshold (Table 1).
Figure 1. Distribution of child malnutrition and achievement of targets established by the Sustainable Development Goals in Brazilian municipalities, according to the classification of the Brazilian Sustainable Development Indices, 2022.
Table 1. Characterization of child malnutrition and its determinants, in Brazil and regions, according to the Brazilian Sustainable Development Indices, 2022.
| Indicators | Thresholds SDGs | Brazil n=5,570* | Midwest n=467* | Northeast n=1,794* | North n=450* | Southeast n=1,668* | South n=1,191* | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Child malnutrition (%) | ||||||||
| Target value | ≥0 and <1 | 1,776 (31.9) | 129 (27.6) | 309 (17.2) | 61 (13.6) | 600 (36) | 677 (56.9) | |
| Green threshold | ≥1 and <3 | 2,484 (44.6) | 179 (38.4) | 947 (52.8) | 241 (53.6) | 764 (45.8) | 353 (29.6) | |
| Red threshold | ≥3 and <5 | 903 (16.2) | 94 (20.1) | 393 (21.9) | 111 (24.6) | 211 (12.6) | 94 (7.9) | |
| Lower threshold | ≥5 | 407 (7.3) | 65 (13.9) | 145 (8.1) | 37 (8.2) | 93 (5.6) | 67 (5.6) | |
| Illiterate population aged ≥15 years | ||||||||
| Target value | ≥0 and <3 | 102 (1.8) | 0 (0) | 0 (0) | 0 (0) | 16 (1) | 86 (7.2) | |
| Green threshold | ≥3 and <17 | 3,256 (58.5) | 411 (88.2) | 125 (7) | 237 (52.8) | 1,406 (84.3) | 1,077 (91) | |
| Red threshold | ≥17 and <30 | 1,532 (27.5) | 55 (11.8) | 1,032 (57.5) | 188 (41.9) | 232 (13.9) | 25 (2.1) | |
| Lower threshold | ≥30 | 675 (12.2) | 0 (0) | 637 (35.5) | 24 (5.3) | 14 (0.8) | 0 (0) | |
| Insufficient prenatal care (%) | ||||||||
| Target value | ≥0 and <10 | 614 (11) | 38 (8.1) | 85 (4.7) | 4 (0.9) | 216 (12.9) | 271 (22.7) | |
| Green threshold | ≥10 and <38 | 4,164 (74.8) | 362 (77.6) | 1,337 (74.6) | 195 (43.3) | 1,384 (83) | 886 (74.4) | |
| Red threshold | ≥38 and <59 | 653 (11.7) | 65 (13.9) | 312 (17.4) | 178 (39.6) | 66 (4) | 32 (2.7) | |
| Lower threshold | ≥59 | 139 (2.5) | 2 (0.4) | 60 (3.3) | 73 (16.2) | 2 (0.1) | 2 (0.2) | |
| Low birth weight (%) | ||||||||
| Target value | ≥0 and <6 | 1,243 (22.3) | 144 (30.8) | 438 (24.4) | 129 (28.7) | 275 (16.5) | 257 (21.6) | |
| Green threshold | ≥6 and <11 | 3,476 (62.4) | 268 (57.4) | 1,191 (66.4) | 290 (64.4) | 1,057 (63.4) | 670 (56.2) | |
| Red threshold | ≥11 and <13 | 439 (7.9) | 29 (6.2) | 102 (5.7) | 14 (3.1) | 187 (11.2) | 107 (9) | |
| Lower threshold | ≥13 | 412 (7.4) | 26 (5.6) | 63 (3.5) | 17 (3.8) | 149 (8.9) | 157 (13.2) | |
| Young women aged 15-24 years who neither study nor work (%) | ||||||||
| Target value | ≥0.83 and <20.46 | 850 (15.4) | 19 (4.1) | 18 (1) | 4 (0.9) | 189 (11.3) | 620 (52.2) | |
| Green threshold | ≥20.46 and <39.4 | 3,876 (69.6) | 377 (80.9) | 1,262 (70.3) | 323 (71.9) | 1,374 (82.4) | 540 (45.5) | |
| Red threshold | ≥39.4 and <47.06 | 699 (12.5) | 59 (12.6) | 423 (23.6) | 97 (21.6) | 97 (5.8) | 23 (1.9) | |
| Lower threshold | ≥47.06 | 140 (2.5) | 11 (2.4) | 91 (5.1) | 25 (5.6) | 8 (0.5) | 5 (0.4) | |
| Employed population aged 10-17 years | ||||||||
| Target value | ≥0 and <7.59 | 547 (9.8) | 19 (4.1) | 294 (16.4) | 37 (8.2) | 178 (10.7) | 19 (1.6) | |
| Green threshold | ≥7.59 and <25.93 | 4,317 (77.5) | 413 (88.4) | 1,397 (77.9) | 376 (83.6) | 1,424 (85.4) | 707 (59.4) | |
| Red threshold | ≥25.93 and <41.32 | 566 (10.2) | 34 (7.3) | 97 (5.4) | 34 (7.5) | 62 (3.7) | 339 (28.4) | |
| Lower threshold | ≥41.32 | 140 (2.5) | 1 (0.2) | 6 (0.3) | 3 (0.67) | 4 (0.2) | 126 (10.6) | |
number of municipalities. SDGs: Sustainable Development Goals; Target value: value that reflects the best performance of the municipality, established as the SDG target for the referred indicator; Green threshold: value of the indicator, from which it is considered that the municipality has reached the SDG target; Red threshold: value that denotes distance from achieving the target intended by the municipality for the SDG indicator; Lower threshold: value that reflects the worst performance of the municipality for the indicator under study.
The South region had 86.5% of municipalities that reached the CM reduction target, followed by the Southeast region, with 81.8%. In the Northeast, North, and Midwest regions, the percentages of municipalities that reached the target were 70, 67.1, and 66%, respectively (Table 1).
The following indicators were selected by the DRT as determinants of CM in Brazil: illiteracy in the population aged ≥15 years (Illiterate population aged ≥15 years), insufficient prenatal care (IPC), low birth weight (LBW), young women aged 15 to 24 years who neither study nor work (Women aged 15-24 years neither-nor), and employed population aged 10 to 17 years (Employed population aged 10-17 years). We estimated the cumulative effect of the increase in these indicators on the prevalence of CM (Figure 2).
Figure 2. Decision and regression tree and the correlation between the indicators of the Sustainable Development Goals determining child malnutrition. Brazil, 2022.
The prevalence of municipalities that achieved the target of reducing illiteracy among people aged ≥15 years was 60.3% and the target of exceeding the IPC was 85.8%. The South, Midwest, and Southeast regions had the highest number of municipalities that reached the target. Nonetheless, 93% of municipalities in the Northeast did not reach the target of reducing illiteracy, and 55.8% of municipalities in the North did not reach the target of exceeding the IPC (Table 1).
In Brazil, 84.7% of municipalities reached the target of exceeding LBW. The South and Southeast regions had the highest number of municipalities that did not reach the target: 22.3 and 20.1%, respectively (Table 1).
Among Brazilian municipalities, 85% achieved the target of reducing the indicator Women aged 15-24 years neither-nor. The Northeast and North regions had the highest number of municipalities that did not reach the target for this indicator (28.7 and 27.2%, respectively). 87.3% of municipalities reached the target of reducing the Employed Population aged 10-17 years, and the South region had the highest percentage of municipalities that did not reach the target (39%) (Table 1).
According to the DRT analysis, in 2,713 municipalities, in which the percentage of Illiterate population aged ≥15 years was <13%, the prevalence of CM was 1.73% (SE±0.04). In 2,017 municipalities, where the percentage of Illiterate population aged ≥15 years was ≥13%, associated with IPC <34%, the prevalence of CM rose to 2.37% (SE±0.05). In 596 municipalities, where the percentages of Illiterate population aged ≥15 years were >13%, IPC ≥34%, and LBW <9%, the prevalence of CM was 2.86% (SE±0.09). In 122 municipalities that, in addition to Illiterate population aged ≥15 years >13%, IPC ≥34%, LBW ≥9%, Women aged 15-24 years neither-nor accounted for <35%, the prevalence of CM increased to 2.89% (SE±0.22) (Figure 2).
In 115 municipalities that presented >13% of Illiterate population aged ≥15 years, IPC ≥34%, LBW ≥9%, Women aged 15-24 years neither-nor ≥35%, and Employed population aged 10-17 years <19%, the prevalence of CM was 4.07% (SE±0.40). In seven municipalities, where Employed population aged 10-17 years was ≥19% and all other inequities remained, the prevalence of CM increased to 15.4% (SE±5.54) (Figure 2).
DISCUSSION
In this study we showed that the SDG target for reducing CM was achieved by 76.5% of Brazilian municipalities, with the South and Southeast regions standing out. The Midwest had the highest percentage of municipalities that did not reach this target. Five SDG indicators were selected as determinants of the CM according to percentages and order of impact (according to the emergence of the indicator in the DRT): Illiterate population aged ≥15 years, IPC, LBW, Women aged 15-24 years neither-nor, and Employed population aged 10-17 years.
The fact that the Midwest region has a higher prevalence than the North raises questions about underreporting and incomplete data in this region, which are common in national surveys and can mask results and impact decision-making 22 .
The prevalence of CM due to H/A in Brazil, according to data from the National Demographic and Health Survey (Pesquisa Nacional de Demografia e Saúde - PNDS/2007), was 6.8% 7 , reaching the target established by the MDGs 3 . However, data from SISVAN showed higher values, ranging from 15.1% (2008) to 13.4% (2019), with a small reduction in 2022 (11.7%), being greater in the North (15.4%) and Northeast (12.9%) 15 . Conversely, authors of the Brazilian National Survey on Child Nutrition (Estudo Nacional de Alimentação e Nutrição Infantil - ENANI/2019), representative of the Brazilian population, demonstrated a prevalence of 7% of low H/A, being higher in the North (8.4%), Southeast (7.3%), and South (7%) 23 .
Due to the gap between PNDS/2007 and ENANI/2019, since 2008, SISVAN data have been used to monitor these targets 5 . SISVAN presents data from all regions and enables the study of the population served by PHC 24 and beneficiaries of the Bolsa Família Program (a cash transfer program of the Brazilian government) 5,16 . Subsequently, data from ENANI/2019 began to be incorporated into SDG monitoring reports to analyze these indicators 25 .
Regardless of regional differences, the socioeconomic and political crisis that has taken hold in Brazil since 2014 has had an impact on the increase in poverty; increased food prices; the adoption of tax austerity measures; and the reduction of social protection measures, contributing to the increase in CM 14 .
Despite the COVID-19 pandemic in 2020, the protective measures adopted by the government, at all levels — through the creation of Emergency Aid; Emergency Employment and Income Maintenance Program 26 ; and specific financial incentives for PHC to combat malnutrition, focused on children and pregnant women —, contributed to mitigating the effect of food insecurity and attenuating the impact of the pandemic on CM 27 .
The severity of functional illiteracy was evident in the Northeast and North, where a large proportion of municipalities did not reach the target, in contrast to other regions. Authors of a study conducted in southern Africa found that the prevalence of CM varied between 3.4 and 30.2%, and was associated with illiteracy 28 . The latter can trigger fewer job opportunities, lower income, and difficulty in acquiring food and accessing health services, contributing to CM 7 .
The target of reducing illiteracy was not achieved by the National Education Plan 2014-2024 due to the non-implementation of public education policies aimed at the public aged ≥15 years 29 . Furthermore, no mechanisms were established to make working hours compatible, nor was there a specific income transfer program 30 . Only in 2024 the Pé de Meia [Nest Egg] Program (a financial-educational government support in the form of savings aimed at promoting student retention and school completion) was instituted, aimed at students aged 14 to 24 years in public schools and those belonging to the Youth and Adult Education (EJA) category, aged 19 to 24 years 31 .
The target of exceeding the IPC was achieved by many municipalities in Brazilian regions, with the exception of the North region. Prenatal coverage in Brazil accounted for 89% from 2013 32 to 2019 33 . It is worth noting that the North has a higher level of precarious services, low prenatal coverage, and worse quality indicators 34 , related to territorial coverage, difficulty in accessing health services, and low retention of professionals in the region 35 .
Nutritional monitoring during prenatal care is essential to prevent inadequate weight gain and control complications 36 that may predispose the pregnant woman to premature birth and the child to intrauterine growth restriction (IUGR) and LBW 37 . Pregnant women should be advised on breastfeeding and adequate nutrition to prevent CM 38 .
In this research, a high frequency of Brazilian municipalities in the North, Northeast, and Midwest exceeded the LBW target; this did not occur in the South and Southeast. The prevalence of LBW is 37.7% in the South and 13.5% in the Southeast 39 .
The LBW paradox was observed in the North and South regions. This can be attributed to the improvement in prenatal care in more developed regions with a concomitant reduction in the prevalence of stillbirths and an increase in LBW 40 , as observed in the South region. We observed the opposite in the North, with a lower prevalence of LBW and a high percentage of municipalities with IPC. Possible explanations would be the high rates of underreporting of live births in the North 41 and the high rate of cesarean sections in the South 42 , related to the interruption of high-risk pregnancies, with a consequent reduction in gestational age, increase in prematurity, and viability of newborns with extremely low birth weight 43 .
Brazil has one of the highest rates of cesarean sections in the world. In 2019, 56.3% of births were cesarean sections and carried out mainly in the Midwest, Southeast, and South regions 44 , highlighting the inequalities in the country. Subsequently, researchers indicated an increasing trend in the North and Northeast, and a decline in the South and Southeast 42 . Despite the decline, the South region still has higher prevalence rates, and Brazil continues to have cesarean section rates well above the recommended level 43 .
Public policies developed since the 1980s, which culminated in the implementation of the Rede Cegonha [Stork Network] Program (a strategy of the Brazilian Ministry of Health intended at improving the care provided to women and children) 45 , were essential for improving important practices related to childbirth and the postpartum period in Brazil. Other policies and strategies related to the protection of breastfeeding and the introduction of adequate and healthy complementary feeding were paramount for protecting children's health, especially that of infants, as it is observed that complications in the neonatal period are more related to pregnancy and childbirth and, after this period, they are more related to the child's socioeconomic context 46 .
The target of reducing the Women aged 15-24 years neither-nor indicator was achieved by 85% of municipalities, with the worst results in the North and Northeast. In 2018, 23% of young people found themselves in this situation, the majority of whom were low-income women 10 . The reasons are related to cognitive abilities, domestic obligations, and the lack of public policies that can mitigate gender inequality and increase the prospects of overcoming poverty 47 . Low levels of education, low income, and teenage pregnancy are more related to IUGR and a higher risk of producing malnourished children 48,49 . Investing in the human capital 2 of these women can contribute to better family planning and the reduction of CM 50 .
Women's education is a strong predictor of their children's health and survival, as it influences access to health services, care in situations of illness, better job opportunities, and income generation for childcare 51 . Mothers tend to manage family expenses better, directing them towards food, clothing, and school supplies 52 .
The South region is the most affected by child labor, and has a high prevalence of the Employed population aged 10-17 years indicator. Child labor can cause harm to the physical and mental health of children and adolescents, in addition to the risk of adopting unhealthy lifestyle habits and developing chronic noncommunicable diseases 53 . It also perpetuates low levels of education, income 54 , and CM 46 . Paradoxically, in the South region, this scenario may be related to the culture that considers work as an educational tool 55 , as it did not negatively impact illiteracy rates, prenatal care, gender inequalities, and CM.
In other regions, in order to increase family income, child labor contributes to high rates of student retention, withdrawal, and school dropout, requiring the implementation of policies to discourage it. Households managed only by women increase the risk of child labor when compared to those managed by men or both sexes. The higher the parents' level of education and income, the lower the risk of dropping out of school 55,56 .
The cut-off points for each CM indicator, identified by the DRT, were within the target proposed by the SDGs. Nevertheless, these contributed to the increased prevalence of CM. Furthermore, the cumulative effect (combined effect of these indicators in the order they appear in the DRT) was even more impactful in increasing the prevalence of CM.
Some researchers have also observed the cumulative effect of indicators of social and health inequities associated with CM. A higher level of maternal education is associated with a reduction in CM 57,58 and greater adherence to prenatal care 59 . In the state of Rio Grande do Sul, an association was found between adequate prenatal care and reduced LBW 60 . In the state of Pernambuco, an association between CM and lower maternal education and LBW was observed 61 . Authors of a review carried out in the North region associated CM with low maternal education and having an illiterate father/stepfather 62 .
The complexity of the outcome of this study is contemplated through the impact that each indicator, identified as a determinant of CM, has on its prevalence, as well as through the interrelations and interdependencies that these indicators exert on the succession of events that favored the increase in the prevalence of CM in Brazil.
The regional inequalities observed were closely related to the achievement or distance from the targets of the studied indicators, which made them vulnerable to an increase in CM.
As study limitations we mention the use of the IDSC-BR database, which: considered information from years near 2022 for the indicators, as some did not provide updated information; and uses data from SISVAN to monitor CM. However, the information obtained through IDSC-BR constitutes a robust database of the Brazilian population, created from the combination of information from various entities and agencies linked to the UN 11 . Moreover, although SISVAN presents flaws in data collection, its information is considered official for statistical purposes due to its coverage and the amount of information per state 14 .
As positive aspects, it is worth highlighting that all SDG monitoring indicators, in all Brazilian municipalities — available in the database — were used in this study, enabling a broad investigation of the issue in question. In addition, DRT was used to select the indicators determining CM and establish the cutoff points in an isolated and cumulative manner.
We conclude that the SDG monitoring indicators that determine CM in Brazil, individually and together, were Illiterate population aged ≥15 years, IPC, LBW, Women aged 15-24 years neither-nor, and Employed population aged 10-17 years. The impact of these indicators on the prevalence of CM showed an average of 1.73%, when the prevalence of Illiterate population aged ≥15 years was less than 13%; up to an average of 15.1%, when all other indicators exceeded the percentages identified by the DRT. Furthermore, most Brazilian municipalities achieved the targets for the indicators selected by the DRT.
All indicators determining CM are related to poverty and social inequalities, making it difficult to achieve the target for CM in the country. It is necessary to implement multidimensional socioeconomic policies by managers at all levels, which improve, in the short and long term, the income of vulnerable families and access to education and health services, especially for adolescents/young people and women, in such a way to minimize and stop the increase in existing inequalities.
In addition, the North and Northeast regions of the country should also be prioritized in terms of investments in maternal and child health care, in which women are monitored from prenatal care, through childbirth, the postpartum period, and the first years of the child's life — consequently minimizing health risks.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS:
The authors would like to thank the Instituto Cidades Sustentáveis [Cidades Sustentáveis Institute] for making publicly available the data from the Sustainable Development Index of Cities — Brazil (IDSC-BR) used in this article.
Funding Statement
this study was partly funded by the Coordination for the Improvement of Higher Education Personnel (CAPES) - Finance Code 001 - and the Maranhão Foundation for Scientific Research and Development (FAPEMA)
Footnotes
FUNDING: this study was partly funded by the Coordination for the Improvement of Higher Education Personnel (CAPES) - Finance Code 001 - and the Maranhão Foundation for Scientific Research and Development (FAPEMA).
REFERENCES
- 1.Xavier DSS, Rodrigues NA, Souza IMC, Franco CASO, Santiago MCF. Levantamento epidemiológico de óbitos infantis por desnutrição no Brasil e revisão bibliográfica da atuação do estado e da pastoral da criança no combate a desnutrição infantil. Rev Saúde Mult. 2022;11(1):98–105. doi: 10.53740/rsm.v11i1.392. [DOI] [Google Scholar]
- 2.Büttner N, Heemann M, De Neve JW, Verguet S, Vollmer S, Harttgen K. Economic growth and childhood malnutrition in low- and middle-income countries. JAMA Netw Open. 2023;6(11):e2342654. doi: 10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2023.42654. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 3.Brasil. Presidência da República . Objetivos de desenvolvimento do milênio: relatório nacional de acompanhamento. Brasília: Ipea; 2014. Governo da República Federativa do Brasil. [Google Scholar]
- 4.Roma JC. Os objetivos de desenvolvimento do milênio e sua transição para os objetivos de desenvolvimento sustentável. Cienc Cult. 2019;7(1):33–39. doi: 10.21800/2317-66602019000100011. [DOI] [Google Scholar]
- 5.Ribeiro-Silva RC, Silva NJ, Felisbino-Mendes MS, Falcão IR, Andrade RCS, Silva SA, et al. Time trends and social inequalities in child malnutrition: nationwide estimates from Brazil's food and nutrition surveillance system, 2009-2017. Public Health Nutr. 2022;25(12):1–11. doi: 10.1017/S1368980021004882. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 6.Pike V, Bradley B, Rappaport AI, Zlotkin S, Perumal N. A scoping review of research on policies to address child undernutrition in the Millennium Development Goals era. Public Health Nutr. 2021;24(13):4346–4357. doi: 10.1017/S1368980021001890. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 7.Monteiro CA, Benicio MHDA, Konno SC, Silva ACF, Lima ALL, Conde WL. Causas do declínio da desnutrição infantil no Brasil, 1996-2007. Rev Saúde Pública. 2009;43(1):35–43. doi: 10.1590/s0034-89102009000100005. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 8.Organização das Nações Unidas Objetivos de Desenvolvimento Sustentável. [cited on Feb. 15, 2024];Transformando nosso mundo: a Agenda 2030 para o Desenvolvimento Sustentável [Internet] 2015 Available at: https://brasil.un.org/sites/default/files/2020-09/agenda2030-pt-br.pdf . [Google Scholar]
- 9.Organización Mundial de la Salud . Serie de documentos normativos [Internet] Geneva: OMS; 2014. [cited on Mar. 14, 2024]. Metas mundiales de nutrición 2025. Available at: https://iris.who.int/bitstream/handle/10665/255736/WHO_NMH_NHD_14.2_spa.pdf?sequence=1 . [Google Scholar]
- 10.Instituto de Pesquisa Econômica Aplicada Agenda 2030: ODS - metas nacionais dos objetivos de desenvolvimento sustentável [Internet] 2018. [cited on Mar. 14, 2024]. Available at: https://portalantigo.ipea.gov.br/agencia/images/stories/PDFs/livros/livros/180801_ods_metas_nac_dos_obj_de_desenv_susten_propos_de_adequa.pdf .
- 11.Fuller G. Índice de Desenvolvimento Sustentável das Cidades. [cited on Mar. 18, 2024];Metodologia [Internet] 2022 Available at: https://idsc-sp.cidadessustentaveis.org.br/static/Metodologia.pdf . [Google Scholar]
- 12.UNICEF Briefing notes on SDG: global indicators related to children [Internet] 2024. [cited on Apr. 02, 2024]. Available at: https://data.unicef.org/resources/briefing-notes-on-sdg-global-indicators-related-to-children/
- 13.United Nations . SDG indicator metadata [Internet] New York: Department of Economic and Social Affairs; 2024. [cited on Aug. 13, 2024]. Available at: https://unstats.un.org/sdgs/metadata/files/Metadata-01-01-01b.pdf . [Google Scholar]
- 14.Gouveia AVS, Carvalho RES, Correia MEG, Silveira JAC. Temporal trend in the prevalence of malnutrition in children under five assisted by the Brazilian Income Transfer Program (2008-2019) Cad Saude Publica. 2024;40(1):e00180022. doi: 10.1590/0102-311XPT180022. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 15.Brasil Ministério da Saúde. Sistema de Vigilância Alimentar e Nutricional. Sistema de Vigilância Alimentar e Nutricional - SISVAN [Internet] [cited on Apr. 05, 2024]. Available at: https://sisaps.saude.gov.br/sisvan/
- 16.Silva RPC, Vergara CMAC, Sampaio HAC, Vasconcelos JE, Filho, Strozberg F, Ferreira JFR, Neto, et al. Food and Nutrition Surveillance System: temporal trend of coverage and nutritional status of adults registered on the system, Brazil, 2008-2019. Epidemiol Serv Saude. 2022;31(1):e2021605. doi: 10.1590/S1679-49742022000100019. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 17.Pedraza DF, Oliveira MM. Nutritional status of children and health services provided by Family Health teams. Cien Saude Colet. 2021;26(8):3123–3134. doi: 10.1590/1413-81232021268.14582020. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 18.Garcia LRS, Roncalli AG. Socioeconomic and health determinants of child malnutrition: an analysis of spatial distribution. Saúde e Pesquisa. 2020;13(3):595–606. doi: 10.17765/2176-9206.2020v13n3p595-606. [DOI] [Google Scholar]
- 19.Amaral LR, Oliveira MAD, Cardoso RB, Ávila SPAR. Atuação do enfermeiro como educador no programa saúde da família: importância para uma abordagem integral na atenção primária. In: Seminário Internacional de Pesquisa e Educação em Enfermagem. 2011:1–21. [Google Scholar]
- 20.Breiman L, Friedman J, Olshen RA, Stone CJ. Classification and regression trees. New York: Chapman and Hall/CRC; 1984. [Google Scholar]
- 21.Instituto Brasileiro de Geografia e Estatística Prévia da população calculada com base nos resultados do Censo Demográfico 2022 até 25 de dezembro de 2022 [Internet] 2022. [cited on Mar. 14, 2024]. Available at: https://ftp.ibge.gov.br/Censos/Censo_Demografico_2022/Previa_da_Populacao/POP2022_Brasil_e_UFs.pdf .
- 22.Queiroz BL, Gonzaga MR, Vasconcelos AMN, Lopes BT, Abreu DMX. Comparative analysis of completeness of death registration, adult mortality and life expectancy at birth in Brazil at the subnational level. Popul Health Metr. 2020;18(Suppl 1):11–11. doi: 10.1186/s12963-020-00213-4. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 23.Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro . Estado Nutricional antropométrico da criança e da mãe: prevalência de indicadores antropométricos de crianças brasileiras menores de 5 anos de idade e suas mães biológicas: ENANI 2019. Rio de Janeiro: UFRJ; 2022. [Google Scholar]
- 24.Bortolini GA, Pereira TN, Nilson EAF, Pires ACL, Moratori MF, Ramos MKP, et al. Evolution of nutrition actions in primary health care along the 20-year history of the Brazilian National Food and Nutrition Policy. Cad Saude Publica. 2022;37(Suppl 1):e00152620. doi: 10.1590/0102-311X00152620. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 25.VI Relatório Luz da Sociedade Civil da Agenda 2030 de Desenvolvimento Sustentável do Brasil. Grupo de Trabalho da Sociedade Civil para a Agenda 2030 [Internet] 2022. [cited on May 02, 2024]. Available at: https://gtagenda2030.org.br/wp-content/uploads/2022/07/pt_rl_2022_final_web-1.pdf .
- 26.Hecksher M, Foguel MN. Benefícios emergenciais aos trabalhadores informais e formais no Brasil: estimativas das taxas de cobertura combinadas da Lei n° 13.982/2020 e da Medida Provisória n° 936/2020. Brasília: Ipea; 2022. [DOI] [Google Scholar]
- 27.Gurgel ADM, Santos CCS, Alves KPS, Araujo JM, Leal VS. Government strategies to ensure the human right to adequate and healthy food facing the COVID-19 pandemic in Brazil. Cienc Saude Colet. 2020;25(12):4945–4956. doi: 10.1590/1413-812320202512.33912020. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 28.Mkhize M, Sibanda M. A review of selected studies on the factors associated with the nutrition status of children under the age of five years in South Africa. Int J Environ Res Public Health. 2020;17(21):7973–7973. doi: 10.3390/ijerph17217973. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 29.Oliveira BA. É possível erradicar o analfabetismo absoluto no Brasil até 2024? Cadernos de Estudos e Pesquisas em Políticas Educacionais. 2022;6:181–208. doi: 10.24109/9786558010531.ceppe.v6.5382. [DOI] [Google Scholar]
- 30.Silva SCV, Ferreira VS, Boeing RFR. As políticas de combate ao analfabetismo no Brasil: continuidades e descontinuidades. Horizontes. 2020;38(1):e020057. doi: 10.24933/horizontes.v38i1.1041. [DOI] [Google Scholar]
- 31.Brasil. Câmara dos Deputados Decreto n° 11.901, de 26 de janeiro de 2024. [cited on Aug. 16, 2024];Regulamenta a Lei nº 14.818, de 16 de janeiro de 2024, que institui incentivo financeiro-educacional, na modalidade de poupança, aos estudantes matriculados no ensino médio público, e cria o Programa Pé-de-Meia [Internet] 2024 Available at: https://www2.camara.leg.br/legin/fed/decret/2024/decreto-11901-26-janeiro-2024-795291-publicacaooriginal-170974-pe.html . [Google Scholar]
- 32.Tomasi E, Fernandes PAA, Fischer T, Siqueira FCV, Silveira DS, Thumé E, et al. Qualidade da atenção pré-natal na rede básica de saúde do Brasil: Indicadores e desigualdades sociais. Cad Saúde Pública. 2017;33(3):e00195815. doi: 10.1590/0102-311X00195815. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 33.Instituto Brasileiro de Geografia e Estatística . Pesquisa de orçamentos familiares 2017-2018: primeiros resultados [Internet] Rio de Janeiro: IBGE; 2019. [cited on Apr. 29, 2024]. Available at: https://biblioteca.ibge.gov.br/visualizacao/livros/liv101670.pdf . [Google Scholar]
- 34.Leal MC, Esteves-Pereira AP, Viellas EF, Domingues RMSM, Gama SGN. Prenatal care in the Brazilian public health services. Rev Saude Publica. 2020;54(8) doi: 10.11606/s1518-8787.2020054001458. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 35.Sousa DS, Cunha CLF, Rodrigues DP, Lemos M, Parente AT, Oliveira BLCA, et al. Assistência pré-natal e puerpério no âmbito da atenção básica no Brasil. Contribuciones a Las Ciencias Sociales. 2020;16(9):18564–18580. doi: 10.55905/revconv.16n.9-281. [DOI] [Google Scholar]
- 36.Teixeira CSS, Cabral ACV. Nutritional status of pregnant women under monitoring in pre distinct prenatal services: the metropolitan area and the rural environment. Rev Bras Ginecol Obstet. 2016;38(1):27–34. doi: 10.1055/s-0035-1570111. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 37.Brasil. Ministério da Saúde . Guia rápido para o acompanhamento de gestantes e crianças com desnutrição na atenção primária à saúde [Internet] Brasília: 2022. [cited on Nov. 06, 2023]. Available at: https://189.28.128.100/dab/docs/portaldab/publicacoes/guia_rapido_acompanhamento_gestantes_criancas_desnutricao_aps.pdf . [Google Scholar]
- 38.Tinôco LS, Lyra CO, Mendes TCO, Freitas YNL, Silva AS, Souza AMS, et al. Feeding practices in the first year of life: challenges to food and nutrition policies. Rev Paul Pediatr. 2020;38:e2018401. doi: 10.1590/1984-0462/2020/38/2018401. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 39.Brasil. Ministério da Saúde DATASUS. [cited on July 25, 2024];Notas técnicas. Nascidos vivos - Brasil [Internet] 2021 Available at: https://tabnet.datasus.gov.br/cgi/tabcgi.exe?sinasc/cnv/nvuf.def . [Google Scholar]
- 40.Veloso HJF, Silva AAM, Bettiol H, Goldani MZ, Lamy F, Filho, Simões VMF, et al. Low birth weight in São Luís, northeastern Brazil: trends and associated factors. BMC Pregnancy Childbirth. 2014;14(1):155–155. doi: 10.1186/1471-2393-14-155. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 41.Andrade CLT, Szwarcwald CL, Castilho EA. Low birth weight in Brazil according to live birth data from the Ministry of Health, 2005. Cad Saude Publica. 2008;24(11):2564–2572. doi: 10.1590/s0102-311x2008001100011. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 42.Pires RCR, Silveira VNC, Leal MC, Lamy ZC, Silva AAM. Temporal trends and projections of caesarean sections in Brazil, its administrative macro-regions, and federative units. Cien Saude Colet. 2023;28(7):2119–2133. doi: 10.1590/1413-81232023287.14152022. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 43.Brasil Diretrizes de Atenção à Gestante: a operação cesariana. [cited on Aug. 16, 2024];Relatório de recomendação [Internet] 2016 Available at: https://www.gov.br/conitec/pt-br/midias/relatorios/2016/relatorio_diretrizes-cesariana_final.pdf . [Google Scholar]
- 44.Belarmino V, Carlotto K, Maduell MCP, Gonçalves CG. Spatial distribution of cesarean sections in Brazil from 2000 to 2019. Res Soc Dev. 2022;11(4):e43211427657. doi: 10.33448/rsd-v11i4.27657. [DOI] [Google Scholar]
- 45.Leal MC, Szwarcwald CL, Almeida PVB, Aquino EML, Barreto ML, Barros F, et al. Reproductive, maternal, neonatal and child health in the 30 years since the creation of the Unified Health System (SUS) Cien Saude Colet. 2018;23(6):1915–1928. doi: 10.1590/1413-81232018236.03942018. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 46.Rebouças P, Falcão IR, Barreto ML. Social inequalities and their impact on children's health: a current and global perspective. J Pediatr (Rio J) 2022;98(Suppl 1(Suppl 1)):S55–S65. doi: 10.1016/j.jped.2021.11.004. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 47.Sawaya AL, Peliano AM, Albuquerque MP, Domene SMA. A família e o direito humano à alimentação adequada e saudável. Estud Av. 2019;33(97):363–382. doi: 10.1590/s0103-4014.2019.3397.020. [DOI] [Google Scholar]
- 48.Ota E, Ganchimeg T, Morisaki N, Vogel JP, Pileggi C, Ortiz-Panozo E, et al. Risk factors and adverse perinatal outcomes among term and preterm infants born small-for-gestational-age: secondary analyses of the WHO multi-country survey on maternal and newborn health. PLoS One. 2014;9(8):e105155. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0105155. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 49.Muhihi A, Sudfeld CR, Smith ER, Noor RA, Mshamu S, Briegleb C, et al. Risk factors for small-for-gestational-age and preterm births among 19,269 Tanzanian newborns. BMC Pregnancy Childbirth. 2016;16:110–110. doi: 10.1186/s12884-016-0900-5. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 50.Alonso C, Brussevich M, Dabla-Norris E, Kinoshita Y, Kochhar K. Reducing and redistributing unpaid work: stronger policies to support gender equality [Internet] IMF Working Paper; 2019. [cited on May 02, 2024]. Available at: http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/cat/longres.aspx?sk=48688 . [Google Scholar]
- 51.Oyekale AS, Maselwa TC. Maternal education, fertility, and child survival in Comoros. Int J Environ Res Public Health. 2018;15(12):2814–2814. doi: 10.3390/ijerph15122814. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 52.Kamamura HC. Efeitos do Programa Bolsa Família no consumo de nutrientes e índices Antropométricos [tese de doutorado] Piracicaba: Universidade de São Paulo; 2014. [Google Scholar]
- 53.Santana VS, Kiss L, Andermann A. The scientific knowledge on child labor in Latin America. Cad Saude Publica. 2019;35(7):e00105119. doi: 10.1590/0102-311X00105119. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 54.Ciríaco JS, Anjos OR, Júnior, Lombardi SC., Filho Uma análise do trabalho infantil na região sul do Brasil. Braz J Dev. 2019;5(8):13500–13514. doi: 10.34117/bjdv5n8-148. [DOI] [Google Scholar]
- 55.Oliveira LE, Rios EG, Neto, Oliveira AMHC. O efeito trabalhador adicional para filhos no Brasil. Rev Bras Est Popul. 2014;31(1):29–49. doi: 10.1590/S0102-30982014000100003. [DOI] [Google Scholar]
- 56.Cabanas P, Komatsu BK, Menezes NA., Filho . Crescimento da renda e as escolhas dos jovens entre os estudos e o mercado de trabalho [trabalho acadêmico] São Paulo: Insper Instituto de Ensino e Pesquisa, Centro de Políticas Públicas; 2014. [Google Scholar]
- 57.Ramos CV, Dumith SC, César JA. Prevalence and factors associated with stunting and excess weight in children aged 0-5 years from the Brazilian semi-arid region. J Pediatr (Rio J) 2015;91(2):175–182. doi: 10.1016/j.jped.2014.07.005. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 58.Casale D, Espi G, Norris SA. Estimating the pathways through which maternal education affects stunting: evidence from an urban cohort in South Africa. Public Health Nutr. 2018;21(10):1810–1818. doi: 10.1017/S1368980018000125. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 59.Matozinhos FP, Mendes LL, Andrade CJM, Velasquez-Melendez G. Avaliação da atenção pré-natal: estudos de base populacional. Rev APS. 2014;17(4):469–475. [Google Scholar]
- 60.Pires PHAF, Triaca LM, Trindade CS, Ribeiro FG. Efeitos do programa de primeira infância melhor sobre indicadores de pré-natal e neonatal [Internet] [cited on Aug. 14, 2024]. Available at: https://www.anpec.org.br/sul/2022/submissao/files_I/i2-3f11e98a002e38d5d6b6526269483cdc.pdf .
- 61.Menezes RCE, Lira PIC, Leal VS, Oliveira JS, Santana SCS, Sequeira LAS, et al. Determinants of stunting in children under five in Pernambuco, northeastern Brazil. Rev Saude Publica. 2011;45(6):1079–1087. doi: 10.1590/s0034-89102011000600010. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 62.Corrêa EM. Vigilância epidemiológica da desnutrição infantil na Região Norte brasileira de 2008 a 2017 [tese de doutorado] São Paulo: Universidade de São Paulo, Faculdade de Saúde Pública; 2020. [Google Scholar]




